Handbook of Sodium-Ion Batteries: Materials and Characterization

Description

The need for batteries has grown exponentially in response to the increase in global energy demand and to the ambitious goals that governments have set up for sustainable energy development worldwide, especially in developed countries. While lithium-ion batteries currently dominate the energy storage market, the limited and unevenly distributed lithium resources have caused huge concerns over the sustainability of the lithium-ion battery technology. Sodium-ion batteries have significant benefits over lithium-ion batteries, including sodium's abundance in the Earth's crust. These batteries have therefore gained research interest, and efforts are being made to use them in place of lithium-ion batteries. Cover Half Title Handbook of Sodium-Ion Batteries: Materials and Characterization Copyright Contents Preface 1. Challenges and Opportunities in Sodium-Ion Batteries: An Introduction 1.1 Importance of Batteries for Energy Storage 1.2 Developing Sodium-Ion Battery 1.3 Anodes 1.3.1 Carbon-Based Anodes 1.3.2 Carbon Alloy-Based Anodes 1.3.3 Other Anode Materials 1.4 Cathodes 1.4.1 Fluoride-Based Cathodes 1.4.2 Prussian Blue Analogues 1.4.3 Other Cathode Materials 1.5 Electrolytes 1.6 Summary and Future Perspective References 2. Principles of Electrochemistry 2.1 Electrochemical Cells 2.2 Alkali-Ion Batteries 2.3 Thermodynamics 2.4 Electrode Reaction Kinetics 2.5 Electrode Reaction Mechanisms References 3. Cathode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries 3.1 Introduct on 3.2 Sodium Layered Oxides 3.2.1 Structure and Propert es of Layered Transit on Metal Oxides 3.2.2 NaxCoO2 and Its Derivat ves 3.2.3 NaxMnO2 and Its Derivat ves 3.2.4 NaxFeO2 and Its Derivat ves 3.2.5 NaNiO2 and Its Derivat ves 3.2.6 NiCrO2 and Its Derivat ves 3.2.7 NiVO2 and Its Derivat ves 3.2.8 Other NaxMO2 3.3 Polyanionic Materials 3.3.1 Phosphates 3.3.1.1 Olivine 3.3.1.2 NASICON 3.3.1.3 Pyrophosphates 3.3.1.4 Fluorophosphates 3.3.1.5 Other phosphates 3.3.2 Sulfates 3.3.2.1 Fluorosulfates 3.3.2.2 Alluaudites 3.3.3 Other Oxysalts 3.3.3.1 Silicates 3.3.3.2 Carbonophosphates 3.4 Prussian Blue Analogs 3.4.1 Crystal Structure of Prussian Blue Analogs 3.4.2 Iron Hexacyanoferrate 3.4.3 Manganese Hexacyanoferrate 3.4.4 Cobalt Hexacyanoferrate 3.4.5 Nickel Hexacyanoferrate 3.4.6 Other Hexacyanoferrate Compounds 3.4.7 Structural and Morphological Opt mizat ons of PBAs 3.5 Conversion-Based Cathode Materials 3.5.1 Metal Fluorides 3.5.2 Carbon Fluorides 3.5.3 Oxyfluorides 3.5.4 Metal Sulfides 3.5.5 Metal Selenides 3.5.6 Other Conversion Cathode Materials 3.6 Organic Cathode Materials 3.6.1 Carbonyl Compounds (C=O Reaction) 3.6.1.1 Quinones and ketones 3.6.1.2 Anhydrides and imides 3.6.2 Pteridine Derivatives (C=N Reaction) 3.6.3 Polymers (Doping Reaction) 3.6.3.1 Conductive polymers 3.6.3.2 Nitroxyl radical polymer 3.6.3.3 Microporous polymers 3.6.3.4 Organometallic polymers 3.7 Conclusion References 4. Prussian Blue Analogues as Cathode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries 4.1 Introduct on 4.2 Structure and Working Principle of PBAs 4.2.1 Typical Structures and Phases of PBAs 4.2.2 Redox React on and Electric Energy Storage Mechanism 4.2.3 Na+ Diffusion 4.2.4 Phase Transit on During Charge/Discharge 4.3 Synthesis Methods 4.4 Typical Hexacyanoferrate 4.4.1 Nickel Hexacyanoferrate (NiHCF) 4.4.2 Iron Hexacyanoferrate (FeHCF) 4.4.3 Manganese Hexacyanoferrate (MnHCF) 4.4.4 Other Prussian Blue Analog Compounds 4.4.5 Mult -Metal Hexacyanoferrate 4.5 Others 4.6 Summary and Outlook Acknowledgment References 5. Polymer Electrodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Polymer Electrode Materials for NIBs 5.2.1 Polymers with Carbonyl Functional Groups 5.2.1.1 Polyimides 5.2.1.2 Polyquinones 5.2.2 Schiff Base Polymer Electrode Materials 5.2.3 Conducting Polymer Electrode Materials 5.2.3.1 Conjugated conducting polymers 5.2.3.2 Non-conjugated conductive radical polymers 5.2.4 Covalent Organic Frameworks 5.3 Characterizations for Polymer Electrode Materials 5.3.1 Solid-State NMR 5.3.1.1 Ex situ NMR 5.3.1.2 In situ NMR 5.3.2 FTIR 5.3.2.1 Ex situ FTIR 5.3.2.2 In situ FTIR 5.4 Summary and Outlook References 6. Transition Metal Dichalcogenides as Active Anode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Structure of Transition Metal Dichalcogenides 6.3 Electronic Properties of TMDs 6.4 Preparation Methods of TMDs 6.4.1 Top-Down Synthesis Techniques 6.4.2 Bottom-Up Synthesis Techniques 6.5 TMDs as Anode Electrodes for SIBs 6.5.1 Sulfide-Based TMDs 6.5.2 Selenide-Based TMDs 6.6 Conclusion and Outlook References 7. Effect of Polymeric Binders on the Sodium-Ion Storage Performance of Positive and Negative Electrode Materials 7.1 Introduct on 7.2 Binders for Electrode Materials in Battery 7.2.1 Physical Propert es of PVDF Binder 7.2.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene 7.2.3 Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose 7.2.4 Sodium Alginate 7.2.5 Polyacrylic Acid 7.3 Method of Making Slurry for Electrode Materials 7.3.1 Hydrodynamic Shear Mixing 7.3.2 Ball Milling 7.4 Effect of Slurry Preparat on Process on Electrode Morphology 7.5 Binders for Anode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries 7.5.1 Binders for Carbon-Based Anode Materials 7.5.2 Binders for Conversion-Based Anode Materials 7.6 Binders for Cathode Materials for Sodium- 7.7 Conclusion References 8. Organic Liquid Electrolytes for Sodium-Ion Batteries 8.1 Introduct on 8.2 Characterist cs of Organic Liquid Electrolytes 8.2.1 Ionic and Electronic Conduct vity 8.2.2 Electrochemical Stability 8.2.3 Thermal Stability 8.3 Chemical Composit ons of Organic Liquid Electrolytes 8.3.1 Sodium Salts 8.3.2 Solvents 8.3.2.1 Carbonate ester-based electrolytes 8.3.2.1.1 Interac on behavior of Na ions with carbonate ester solvents 8.3.2.1.2 Reduc on of the carbonate ester-based electrolytes 8.3.2.1.3 Electrochemical compa bility with electrodes 8.3.2.2 Ether-based electrolytes 8.3.3 Addit ves 8.3.3.1 Film-format on addit ves 8.3.3.2 Flame-retardant addit ves 8.3.3.3 Overcharge protect on addit ves 8.4 Summary and Outlook Acknowledgment References 9. Cycling Stability of Sodium-Ion Batteries in Analogy to Lithium-Ion Batteries 9.1 Introduct on 9.2 Electrolytes 9.2.1 Electrolyte Degradat on at Anode (Negat ve Electrode) 9.2.2 Electrolyte Degradat on at Cathode (Posit ve Electrode) 9.2.3 Degradat on of SEI Layer 9.3 Failure of Anode 9.3.1 Pulverizat on 9.3.2 Delaminat on 9.3.3 Sodium Plat ng and Dendrite Format on 9.4 Cathodes 9.4.1 Material Degradat on 9.4.1.1 Dissolut on of transit on metals 9.4.1.2 Oxygen evolut on at elevated temperatures 9.4.2 Phase Change 9.4.2.1 Permanent phase changes due to over- or under charging 9.4.2.2 Permanent phase change due to anisotropic stress 9.4.2.3 Amorphizat on of crystalline structures 9.4.3 Foreign Molecule Inclusion/Intercalat on 9.5 Concluding Remarks References 10. Atomistic Modeling and Analysis of Electrolyte Properties for Sodium-Ion Batteries 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Computational Methods 10.2.1 DFT Simulations of Electrolyte Properties 10.2.2 MD Simulations of Electrolyte Properties 10.2.3 Available Software 10.3 Liquid Electrolytes 10.3.1 Electrochemical Stability 10.3.2 Solvation Structures 10.3.3 Transport Properties 10.4 Polymeric Solid Electrolytes 10.5 Ceramic Solid-State Electrolytes 10.5.1 NASICON 10.5.2 Anti-perovskites 10.5.3 Thiophosphates 10.6 Summary References 11. Product on, Characterist c, and Development of Separators 11.1 Introduct on 11.2 Separator Preparat on Technology 11.2.1 Electrospinning and Electrostat c Spraying 11.2.1.1 Principle 11.2.1.2 Influencing factors 11.2.1.3 Method evaluat on 11.2.2 Phase Inversion Method 11.2.2.1 Principle 11.2.2.2 Classify 11.2.2.3 Preparat on process 11.2.2.4 Method evaluat on 11.2.3 Stretching Method 11.2.3.1 Dry stretching method 11.2.3.2 Wet stretching method 11.2.3.3 Comparison of dry and wet methods 11.2.4 Solid Part cle Sintering Method 11.2.4.1 Principle 11.2.4.2 Influencing factors 11.2.5 Melt-Blown Spinning Process 11.2.5.1 Principle 11.2.5.2 Process 11.2.5.3 Influencing factors 11.2.6 Coat ng 11.2.6.1 Coat ng method 11.2.7 Wet Papermaking 11.2.8 Magnetron Sputtering Method 11.3 Performance Indexes and Test Techniques of Separators 11.3.1 Thickness 11.3.1.1 Micrometer 11.3.1.2 Scanning electron microscope 11.3.1.3 Atomic force microscope 11.3.1.4 Other methods 11.3.2 Porosity 11.3.2.1 Suct on method 11.3.2.2 Direct calculat on method 11.3.2.3 Instrument test method 11.3.3 Average Pore Size and Size Distribut on 11.3.3.1 Mercury porosimeter 11.3.3.2 Capillary flow porometer 11.3.3.3 N2 isothermal adsorpt on and desorpt on curves 11.3.4 Mechanical Propert es 11.3.4.1 Universal electronic tension machine 11.3.4.2 Tension tester 11.3.5 Wettability 11.3.5.1 Weighing method (electrolyte uptake) 11.3.5.2 Time method (electrolyte immersed height) 11.3.5.3 Instrument test method: contact angle 11.3.6 Thermal Stability 11.3.6.1 Thermal shrinkage 11.3.6.2 Different al scanning calorimetry 11.3.6.3 Thermogravimetric analysis 11.3.7 Electrochemical Performance 11.3.7.1 Linear sweep voltammetry 11.3.7.2 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy 11.3.7.3 Ionic conduct vity 11.3.7.4 Ion diffusion coefficient 11.3.7.5 Ion transference number 11.4 Components and Development of Separators 11.4.1 Analysis of Separator Components 11.4.1.1 Polyolefin separator 11.4.1.2 Glass fiber 11.4.1.3 Polyvinylidene fluoride and its copolymers 11.4.1.4 Polyimide 11.4.2 Requirements and Development Status of Separators 11.4.2.1 Requirements of separators 11.4.2.2 Development status of separators 11.5 Influence of Separators on Battery Performances 11.5.1 Electrochemical Performance 11.5.1.1 Influence on voltage 11.5.1.2 Influence on internal resistance 11.5.2 Safety Performance 11.5.2.1 Influence on heat resistance 11.5.2.2 Influence on mechanical safety performance 11.5.2.3 Influence on dendrit c inhibit on 11.5.2.4 Improved strategy 11.6 Future Research Direct on of Separators 11.6.1 Electrode-Separator Integrat on Product on 11.6.2 Intelligent Response of Separators 11.6.2.1 Voltage-response separator 11.6.2.2 Self-ext nguishing separator References 12. Advanced Electron Microscopy Characterization of Sodium-Ion Battery Materials 12.1 Introduction 12.2 High-Resolution Scanning TEM and Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy 12.2.1 HRSTEM and EELS for NIB Characterization 12.2.2 In operando TEM 12.2.3 In operando TEM for NIB Characterization 12.2.3.1 Carbonaceous materials 12.2.3.2 Phosphorus and Phosphorene 12.2.3.3 Metal oxides 12.2.3.4 Metal chalcogenides 12.2.3.5 Others 12.2.3.6 Metalloids 12.2.3.7 Conclusion 12.3 Emerging Tools for NIB Characterization 12.3.1 Cryo-TEM 12.3.2 4D STEM and Electron Holography 12.3.3 Electron Tomography 12.4 Future Outlook References 13. Synchrotron Radiation-Based X-Ray Characterizations of Sodium-Ion Battery 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Challenges in SIBs 13.2 Synchrotron-Radiation-Based X-Ray Characterizations in SIBs 13.2.1 Synchrotron-Radiation-Based X-Ray Diffraction 13.2.1.1 Phase and structure evolution monitoring 13.2.1.2 Thermal stability analysis 13.2.1.3 Pair distribution function 13.2.1.4 Joint use of SXRD and neutron diffraction 13.2.2 Synchrotron-Radiation-Based X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy 13.2.2.1 Hard X-ray absorption spectroscopy (hXAS) 13.2.2.1.1 Local and electronic structure analysis 13.2.2.1.2 Monitoring charge compensation 13.2.2.1.3 Dynamic study by using in situ/in operando hXAS 13.2.2.2 Soft X-ray spectroscopy 13.2.2.2.1 Probing electron/valence state of electrode materials 13.2.2.2.2 Investigate surface chemical by sXAS and XES 13.2.2.2.3 Redox mechanism monitoring 13.2.2.2.4 sXAS and RIXS applied for oxygen redox reaction probing 13.2.3 Synchrotron Radiation-Based X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 13.2.3.1 Hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 13.2.3.1.1 SEI/CEI composition analysis and evolution probing 13.2.3.1.2 Redox process monitoring 13.2.3.1.3 Evaluation of electrolyte additive effect 13.2.3.2 Soft X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 13.2.3.2.1 Surface layer evolution monitoring 13.2.3.2.2 Evaluation of binder effect 13.2.4 Synchrotron Radiation-Based X-Ray Imaging Techniques 13.2.4.1 Applications of transmission X-ray microscopy in SIBs 13.2.4.1.1 Research on morphological changes 13.2.4.1.2 Phase transformation monitoring and elemental distribution analysis 13.3 Conclusion and Outlook Acknowledgment References Index