The Planetary Ocean

Description

Cover Table of Contents Prolog Preface to the French Edition Acknowledgments Introduction I. Generalities 1. Ocean characteristics 1.1 Spatial characteristics 1.2 Physical characteristics of pure water 1.3 Chemical and physical properties of seawater 2. Heat and water exchanges between ocean and atmosphere 2.1 Global radiation balance 2.1.1 Incident solar radiation and albedo 2.1.2 Absorption of incident radiation 2.1.3 The greenhouse effect 2.1.4 Long-wave (infrared) radiation 2.1.5 Evaporation and conduction 2.1.6 Radiative balance 2.2 Distribution of ocean-atmosphere heat fluxes 2.2.1 Solar radiation 2.2.2 Heat loss by infrared radiation 2.2.3 Heat loss by evaporation 2.2.4 Heat loss by conduction 2.2.5 Net heat flux 2.3 Atmosphere and ocean heat transport 2.4 Ocean surface temperature 2.5 Water fluxes 2.5.1 Evaporation and precipitation 2.5.2 Water flux balance 2.6 Surface salinity 2.7 Surface density 2.8 Heat and salt transfers to the ocean interior. The thermocline 3. Water masses 3.1 General properties of water masses 3.2 Mode Waters, Central Waters, and Intermediate Waters 3.3 Bottom Waters and Deep Waters 3.4 Analysis of water characteristics 3.4.1 Potential temperature and potential density 3.4.2 Potential temperature-salinity diagram 3.4.3 Tracers 4. Ocean circulation 4.1 Laws controlling oceanic motion 4.2 The effect of Earth rotation on motion; the Coriolis force 4.3 Geostrophy: the principal balance of forces in the ocean 4.4 The dynamic method 4.5 Dynamic topography 4.6 Thermohaline circulation 5. The role of wind 5.1 Oceanic and atmospheric surface circulation 5.2 Local wind effects: Ekman transport 5.2.1 Wind acting near a coastline: coastal upwelling 5.2.2 Wind at the equator: equatorial upwelling, Equatorial Undercurrent 5.3 Large-scale wind effects 5.3.1 Ekman pumping 5.3.2 Sverdrup balance 5.3.3 Western intensification of ocean currents 5.3.4 Conservation of potential vorticity 6. Observational techniques 6.1 Temperature and salinity measurements 6.1.1 Reversing thermometers 6.1.2 Bathythermograph 6.1.3 Expendable bathythermograph, or XBT 6.1.4 Salinometer 6.1.5 Thermosalinograph 6.2 The hydrographic station and its measurements 6.2.1 Knudsen, Nansen, and Niskin sample bottles 6.2.2 CTD probe and rosette 6.3 Direct current measurements 6.3.1 Current meters 6.3.2 Acoustic Doppler current profilers 6.3.3 Moored current meters 6.3.4 Surface-moored buoy 6.4 Drifting buoys, floats, profilers, gliders 6.4.1 Drifting buoys 6.4.2 Swallow floats and SOFAR floats 6.4.3 Profiling floats 6.4.4 Gliders 6.4.5 Animal-borne instruments: How elephant seals can help exploring the ocean 6.5 Satellite measurements II. The Antarctic (or Austral) Ocean 1. Introduction 2. Geographic characteristics 3. Atmospheric pressure and winds 4. Climatology 4.1 Glaciers and ice pack 4.1.1 Continental glaciers, ice shelves 4.1.2 The ice pack 4.1.3 Polynyas 4.2 Precipitation 5. Surface circulation 5.1 The Antarctic Circumpolar Current 5.2 The Antarctic Circumpolar Current and oceanic fronts 5.2.1 The Subtropical Front and the Subantarctic Zone 5.2.2 The Subantarctic Front and the Polar Frontal Zone 5.2.3 The Polar Front, the Antarctic Zone, and the Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current Front 5.2.4 The Southern Zone, the Southern Boundary and the Antarctic Divergence 5.2.5 The role of topography in the Circumpolar Current 5.3 The Periantarctic Coastal Current 6. Water properties 6.1 Surface temperature 6.2 Salinity 6.3 Antarctic Ocean Water Masses 6.3.1 Antarctic Circumpolar Deep Water 6.3.2 Antarctic Intermediate Water and Subantarctic Mode Water 6.3.3 Bottom Water and Deep Water in the Weddell Sea 6.3.4 Antarctic Bottom Water 7. Distinctive features of the Antarctic Ocean III. The Atlantic Ocean 1. Introduction 2. Geographic characteristics 3. Climatology 3.1 Pressure and winds 3.2 Precipitation and evaporation 4. Surface and subsurface circulation 4.1 The equatorial current system 4.1.1 The North Equatorial Current 4.1.2 The South Equatorial Current and the North Brazil Current 4.1.3 North Equatorial Countercurrent 4.1.4 South Equatorial Countercurrent and the Angola Dome 4.1.5 The Equatorial Undercurrent 4.1.6 North and South Equatorial undercurrents 4.1.7 Equatorial jets 4.2 The North subtropical gyre 4.2.1 The Gulf Stream system 4.2.1.1 Circulation in the American Mediterranean 4.2.1.2 The Florida Current 4.2.1.3 The Gulf Stream 4.2.2 The North Atlantic Drift and eastern boundary currents 4.3 The subpolar cyclonic gyre 4.4 The south subtropical gyre 4.5 Upwelling zones 4.5.1 Equatorial upwelling 4.5.2 Canary upwelling 4.5.3 Benguela upwelling 5. Adjacent seas 5.1 The (Eurafrican) Mediterranean 5.1.1 Introduction 5.1.2 Topography 5.1.3 Climatology 5.1.4 Surface circulation 5.1.5 Mediterranean oceanography 5.1.5.1 Atlantic Water 5.1.5.2 The Black Sea 5.1.5.3 Formation processes of Mediterranean water masses 5.1.5.4 Intermediate Levantine Water 5.1.5.5 Aegean Sea 5.1.5.6 Adriatic Sea and Eastern Basin Deep Water 5.1.5.7 Western Basin Deep Water 5.1.5.8 Mediterranean characteristics 5.2 The Arctic Ocean, the Norwegian Sea, and the Greenland Sea (or Arctic Mediterranean) 5.2.1 Introduction 5.2.2 Topography 5.2.3 Climatology 5.2.3.1 Pressure and winds 5.2.3.2 Precipitation and heat flux 5.2.4 Surface currents of the Arctic Ocean 5.2.5 Surface temperature 5.2.6 Arctic Mediterranean Oceanography 5.2.6.1 Atlantic Water 5.2.6.2 Arctic Surface Water 5.2.6.3 Deep Water of the Greenland Sea and of the Norwegian Sea 5.2.6.4 Arctic Deep Water 5.2.6.5 Arctic Intermediate Waters 5.2.6.6 Overflows from the Nordic Seas 6. Water properties 6.1 Surface water 6.2 Subtropical Waters, Central Waters, Subtropical Mode Waters 6.2.1 North and South Subtropical Waters 6.2.2 North and South Central Waters 6.3 Antarctic Intermediate Water 6.4 Arctic Intermediate Waters and Subpolar Mode Waters 6.5 Mediterranean Water 6.6 Antarctic Bottom Water 6.7 Dense waters exiting over the Greenland-Scotland sills 6.7.1 Sill Water between Iceland and Scotland 6.7.2 Denmark Water Strait 6.8 Labrador Sea Water 6.9 North Atlantic Deep Water 7. Water properties of adjacent and epicontinental seas 7.1 American Mediterranean (Caribbean Sea) 7.2 Some epicontinental seas 7.2.1 The North Sea 7.2.2 The Baltic Sea 7.2.3 Hudson Bay 7.2.4 Baffin Bay 8. Distinctive features of the Atlantic Ocean IV. The Indian Ocean 1. Introduction 2. Geographic characteristics 3. Climatology 3.1 Atmospheric pressure and wind regime 3.1.1 Pressure and winds over the southern Indian Ocean 3.1.2 Pressures and winds over the northern Indian Ocean 3.2 Precipitation, evaporation, heat exchange 4. Surface circulation 4.1 General circulation 4.2 Circulation South of 10°S 4.2.1 South Equatorial Current 4.2.2 SE and NE Madagascar Currents 4.2.3 Agulhas Current 4.2.4 South Indian Current, West Australian Current and the eastern cyclonic circuit 4.2.5 Leeuwin Current 4.2.6 Upper connections with the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans 4.3 Circulation North of 10°S 4.3.1 Circulation in the Arabian Sea and along the Somali coast 4.3.2 Circulation in the Bay of Bengal and the eastern Indian Ocean 4.3.3 Equatorial Current, Wyrtki Jet 4.3.4 South Equatorial Countercurrent 4.3.5 Equatorial Undercurrent 5. Water properties 5.1 Surface water 5.1.1 Surface temperature 5.1.2 Surface salinity 5.2 Adjacent seas 5.2.1 The Red Sea 5.2.2 The Persian Gulf 5.2.3 Indonesian Seas 5.3 Indian Ocean Water Masses 5.3.1 Antarctic Intermediate Water and Subantarctic Mode Waters 5.3.2South Indian Ocean Central Water, Subtropical Mode Waters, South Indian Ocean Subtropical Water 5.3.3 The Hydrologic Front (SEC Front) 5.3.4 Arabian Sea Water, Northwest Indian Ocean Water 5.3.5 Bay of Bengal Water 5.3.6 Indian Deep Water 5.3.7 Indian Ocean Bottom Water 6. Distinctive features of the Indian Ocean V. The Pacific Ocean 1. Introduction 2. Geographic characteristics 3. Climatology 3.1 Pressure distribution 3.2 Winds 3.3 Precipitation, evaporation, and heat exchanges 3.4 Climatic anomalies over the Pacific: El Niño 4. Surface circulation 4.1 General circulation 4.2 Equatorial current systems 4.2.1 The North Equatorial Current 4.2.2 The South Equatorial Current 4.2.3 The North Equatorial Countercurrent 4.2.4 The South Equatorial Countercurrent 4.2.5 The Equatorial Undercurrent 4.2.6 The Equatorial Intermediate Current and equatorial jets 4.2.7 The North Equatorial Undercurrent and the South Equatorial Undercurrent 4.2.8 Equatorial upwelling 4.2.9 Instabilities 4.2.10 Variability 4.3 Western boundary currents 4.3.1 The Kuroshio 4.3.2 The subpolar cyclonic circuit and the Oyashio 4.3.3 The Mindanao Current and the New Guinea Coastal Current 4.3.4 The East Australian Current 4.4 Eastern boundary currents and coastal upwelling 4.4.1 Peruvian upwelling 4.4.2 California upwelling 4.5 The South Pacific Current 5. Water properties 5.1 Surface water 5.1.1 Surface temperature 5.1.2 Surface salinity 5.2 Subtropical salinity maximum, North and South Tropical Waters 5.3 Central and Equatorial Waters 5.3.1 Southwest and Southeast Pacific Central Waters 5.3.2 Northwest and Northeast Pacific Central Waters 5.3.3 North and South Pacific Equatorial Waters 5.4 Intermediate Waters 5.4.1 Antarctic Intermediate Water 5.4.2 Subarctic Water and North Pacific Intermediate Water 5.5 Deep Water and Bottom Water 5.6 Some Pacific Ocean Adjacent Seas 5.6.1 The Sea of Japan 5.6.2 The Bering Sea 5.6.3 The Sea of Okhotsk 6. Distinctive features of the Pacific Ocean VI. Conclusions 1. Planetary ocean water properties 1.1 Temperature and salinity distribution 1.2 The ensemble of q-S diagrams 1.3 Specific features of each ocean 2. Circulation of the planetary ocean 3. Thoughts on ocean variability, climatic implications 3.1 Oceanic response to global atmospheric warming 3.2 Examples of interannual variability 3.3 In the form of an epilog References, acronyms, web sites References Acronyms and abbreviations Water Mass Abbreviations Ocean Current Abbreviations Other abbreviations Web sites Index