Forever Chemicals: Environmental, Economic, and Social Equity Concerns with PFAS in the Environment

Description

Forever Chemicals: Environmental, Economic, and Social Equity Concerns with PFAS in the Environment provides the reader with an understanding of the complex and interwoven issues associated with per- and polyfluorinated substances (PFAS) in our environment. The chapters provide in-depth perspective into various issues, including health, regulation, detection, clean-up strategies and technologies, and more. Taken together or as the reader’s interests lead them, the variety of topics covered in the book present a balanced perspective on this complex topic. It will address the current state of PFAS and where indicators are pointing for future developments. The book is also a deeper investigation of the regulatory challenges, analytical hurdles, and toxicological progress to date for the suite of PFAS chemicals. Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents Foreword Editors Contributors Section I: Social Concerns Chapter 1: PFAS: Today and Tomorrow 1.1 Introduction 1.2 PFAS Terminology 1.2.1 Linear and Branched Terminology 1.2.2 PFAS Families 1.3 PFAS Pathways 1.4 Policy 1.5 Remediation 1.6 Analytical Methods 1.7 Future Trends References Chapter 2: Fluorine Free Foams: Transitioning Guide 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Evolution of F3 foams 2.2.1 The Origins of Modern Fluorine Free Firefighting Foams 2.2.2 The Genesis of Modern High-Performance F3 Foams 2.3 PFAS and Firefighting Foams 2.4 Evolving Concerns Regarding C6 PFAS Chemistries 2.5 Advancing Environmental Regulations 2.6 Regulations Focussed on Foam Usage 2.6.1 Europe 2.6.2 United States 2.6.2.1 Washington 2.6.2.2 California 2.6.2.3 Colorado 2.6.2.4 Arizona 2.6.2.5 Virginia 2.6.2.6 Kentucky 2.6.2.7 Georgia 2.6.2.8 New York 2.6.2.9 Minnesota 2.6.2.10 Wisconsin 2.6.2.11 Michigan 2.6.3 Australia 2.6.4 Summary of Regulatory Trends 2.7 Availability and Users of Fluorine Free Firefighting Foam 2.8 Testing the Effectiveness of Fluorine Free Firefighting Foam 2.9 Water-Soluble Fuels 2.10 Environmental Certifications for F3 Foams 2.10.1 Harmonized Offshore Notification Format 2.10.2 GreenScreen Certification™ 2.11 AFFF Management and Transition 2.11.1 Foam Transition 2.11.2 Cleanout Challenges 2.11.3 Impact on Fire Water Systems 2.11.4 Equipment Replacement versus Cleanout and Retain 2.11.5 Decontamination Case Studies 2.12 Waste Management 2.13 Conclusions References Chapter 3: PFASs in Consumer Products: Exposures and Regulatory Approaches 3.1 Introduction 3.2 A Note On Nomenclature 3.3 Which PFASs Are Used In Consumer Products? 3.3.1 Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs) 3.3.2 PFAA Precursors 3.3.3 Fluoropolymers 3.3.4 Perfluoropolyethers (PFPEs) 3.3.5 Trends in PFAS Use in Consumer Products 3.4 From Consumer Products To Human Exposure 3.4.1 PFASs in Indoor Air 3.4.2 PFASs in Indoor Dust 3.4.3 PFASs in Food 3.4.4 PFASs in Drinking Water 3.5 PFAS Exposure Determinants 3.5.1 Exposure Quantification and Exposure Profiles 3.5.2 Exposure Determinants 3.6 Regulatory Approaches 3.6.1 Single Chemical Approach 3.6.2 Mixture Approach 3.6.3 Arrowhead or Subclass Approach 3.6.4 Chemical Class Approach 3.7 Conclusions Acknowledgements References Chapter 4: Regulatory Implications of PFAS 4.1 Introduction to the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) 4.2 The Federal Perspective 4.3 The States’ Perspective 4.4 What the Future Holds References Chapter 5: The Analytical Conundrum 5.1 Introduction to the Chemistry 5.2 Method Development Timeline 5.3 Where the Industry is at Today 5.4 A Look at Specific Matrices 5.4.1 Landfill Leachate 5.4.2 Biosolids 5.4.3 Air 5.5 Industry Trends 5.6 Conclusions References Chapter 6: Landfills as Sources of PFAS Contamination of Soil and Groundwater 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Landfills for Waste Management 6.3 Accumulation of PFAS in Landfills 6.4 Leaching of PFAS from Landfills 6.5 Water and Air Pollution by PFAS 6.6 Treatment of PFAS in Landfill Leachate 6.7 Conclusions References Section II: Toxicology and Epidemiology Chapter 7: Exposure to PFAS: Biomonitoring Insights 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 7.3 Biomonitoring Concentration Profiles 7.4 Biomonitoring Matrices for Assessing PFAS Exposure 7.5 Alternative PFAS 7.6 NHANES Limitations: Relevance of other Biomonitoring Investigations Acknowledgement Disclaimer References Chapter 8: State of the Science for Risk Assessment of PFAS at Contaminated Sites 8.1 Introduction 8.2 General Overview of Fate and Exposures At PFAS Contaminated Sites 8.3 Human Health Risk Assessment 8.3.1 Overview of Human Health Effects and Exposures 8.3.2 Human Health Assessment of PFAS in Drinking Water 8.3.3 Human Health Assessment of PFAS in the Diet 8.3.3.1 PFAS Exposure via Fish Consumption 8.3.3.2 Calculation of Site-specific Fish Tissue Criteria 8.3.3.3 Other Dietary Exposure Routes – Game, Agriculture, and Homegrown Produce 8.3.4 Human Health Assessment of PFAS Associated with Other Exposure Pathways 8.3.4.1 Incidental Soil Ingestion and Dust Inhalation 8.3.4.2 Dermal Contact with Soils and Water 8.3.4.3 Vapor Inhalation 8.4 Ecological Risk Assessment 8.4.1 Ecological Health Assessment of PFAS for Aquatic Life 8.4.2 Ecological Health Assessment of PFAS for Aquatic-dependent and Terrestrial Vertebrate Wildlife 8.4.3 Ecological Health Assessment of PFAS for Soil Life 8.5 Conclusions References Section III: Remediation Chapter 9: Advances in Remediation of PFAS-impacted Waters 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Adsorption 9.2.1 Activated Carbon 9.2.1.1 Granular Activated Carbon 9.2.1.2 Powdered Activated Carbon 9.2.1.3 Super-fine Powdered Activated Carbon 9.2.2 Ion Exchange 9.2.3 Functionalized Adsorbents 9.3 Separation 9.3.1 Membrane Treatment 9.3.1.1 Nanofiltration (NF) 9.3.1.2 Reverse Osmosis 9.3.2 Foam Fractionation 9.4 Destruction 9.4.1 Thermal Destruction 9.4.1.1 Incineration 9.4.1.2 Cement Kilns 9.4.2 Sonolysis 9.4.3 Electrochemical Treatment References Chapter 10: Effectiveness of Point- of-Use/Point-of-Entry Systems to Remove PFAS from Drinking Water 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Methods and Materials 10.2.1 Test Water Preparation 10.2.2 Stability Study 10.2.3 Analytical Methods 10.2.4 Analytical Sampling Plan 10.2.5 RO System Design 10.2.5.1 iSpring RO System 10.2.5.2 HydroLogic RO System 10.2.5.3 Flexeon RO System 10.2.5.4 Booster Pumps 10.2.5.5 Modifications For Point-of-Entry Use 10.2.6 RO System Sampling Plan 10.2.7 GAC System Design 10.3 Results and Discussion 10.3.1 RO System Studies 10.3.1.1 RO #1 Test 10.3.1.2 RO #2 Test 10.3.1.3 RO #3 Test 10.3.1.4 RO Discussion 10.3.2 GAC Media Studies 10.3.2.1 GAC #1 Test 10.3.2.2 GAC #2 Test 10.3.2.3 GAC Media Discussion 10.3.3 RO and GAC Residuals Management 10.4 Modeling of GAC Results 10.4.1 Parameter Estimation Process 10.4.2 Pore Surface Diffusion Model 10.4.3 Application of the Model 10.5 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 11: Removing PFAS from Water: From Start to Finish 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Technology Overview: Granular Activated Carbon and Ion Exchange Resin 11.2.1 Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) 11.2.2 Ion Exchange Resin (IX) 11.2.3 Granular Activated Carbon vs. Ion Exchange Resin 11.3 Predicting Performance 11.3.1 Piloting Initiatives 11.3.2 Bench-scale Testing 11.3.3 Modeling Capabilities 11.4 Permanent Treatment Solutions 11.4.1 Permanent GAC Solution Kennebunk, ME 11.4.2 Permanent IX Solution Stratmoor Hills, CO 11.5 Rental or Emergency Assets – Municipality in Vermont 11.6 The New and the Next: Emerging Technology and Applications Acknowledgments References Chapter 12: Rapid Removal of PFAS from Investigation-derived Waste in a Pilot-scale Plasma Reactor 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Materials and Methods 12.2.1 Chemicals 12.2.2 Site Selection and Groundwater Collection 12.2.3 Plasma Reactor 12.2.4 Experimental Procedures 12.2.5 Analytical Procedures 12.3 Results and Discussion 12.3.1 Initial PFAA Concentrations 12.3.2 Initial PFAA Precursor Concentrations 12.3.3 Plasma Treatment of IDW Samples 12.3.4 Effect of Co-contaminants on PFAS Removal Efficiency 12.3.5 Energy Requirements of Plasma Treatment for PFOA and PFOS Removal Acknowledgments References Chapter 13: Recent Advances in Oxidation and Reduction Processes for Treatment of PFAS in Water 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Advanced Oxidations 13.2.1 Activated Persulfate 13.2.2 Electrochemical Oxidation 13.2.3 Ultrasonication 13.3 Chemical Reduction 13.4 Advanced Reductions 13.4.1 Examined ARPs 13.4.2 Reaction Mechanism 13.4.3 Structure−Reactivity Relationship 13.5 Impact of Environmental and Operational Parameters ON ARPs 13.5.1 Dissolved Oxygen 13.5.2 Dissolved Organic Matter and NO 3 − 13.5.3 Water pH 13.5.4 Operational Parameters: Sensitizer Concentration 13.6 Plasma Technologies 13.7 Full-Scale Considerations 13.7.1 Removal of PFAS During Conventional Full-Scale Treatments 13.7.2 Specific Applications: Treating Concentrated Waste Streams 13.8 Summary and Conclusions 13.8.1 Oxidation Processes 13.8.2 Reduction Processes References Chapter 14: Novel Cyclodextrin Polymer Adsorbents for PFAS Removal 14.1 Properties of DEXSORB+® A Novel Mesoporous β-Cyclodextrin Adsorbent 14.1.1 Structure 14.1.2 Surface Area, Porosity, Density and Particle Size 14.1.3 Swelling 14.1.4 Material Stability 14.1.5 Regeneration 14.2 PFAS Adsorption Mechanisms 14.2.1 Kinetics 14.2.2 Thermodynamics 14.2.3 Hydrophobic and Electrostatic Interactions 14.3 PFAS Uptake in Real Water Matrices 14.3.1 Batch Uptake 14.3.2 Packed-Bed Filtration 14.3.2.1 Rapid Small-Scale Column Tests 14.3.2.2 Pilot-Scale Column Tests 14.4 Potential Effects of Water Matrices 14.4.1 Suspended Solids 14.4.2 Ionic Strength 14.4.3 Natural Organic Matter 14.4.4 pH 14.5 Cyclodextrin Polymer Operation Cycles 14.5.1 Loading of Fresh Adsorbents 14.5.2 Regeneration of Exhausted Adsorbents 14.5.3 Reuse of Regenerated Adsorbents 14.5.4 Destruction of PFAS Concentrate 14.6 Adsorption Treatment Applications 14.6.1 Batch Adsorption Followed by Ultrafiltration 14.6.1.1 Preparation of Powdered Adsorbent 14.6.1.2 Hydraulic Residence Time 14.6.1.3 Filtration of Adsorbent 14.6.2 Packed-bed Filtration 14.6.2.1 Preparation of Granular Adsorbent 14.6.2.2 Pretreatment Considerations 14.6.2.3 Hydraulic Conditions 14.6.2.4 Fixed or Backwashable Bed 14.6.2.5 Regeneration and Concentrate Destruction 14.6.3 Others 14.6.3.1 Batch Adsorption Followed by Coagulation and Flocculation 14.6.3.2 Small Drinking Water Systems 14.7 Summary References Chapter 15: Modeling Water Treatment Performance and Costs for Removal of PFAS from Drinking Water 15.1 Introduction 15.1.1 High-Pressure Membrane Systems 15.1.2 Anion Exchange Resins 15.1.3 Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) 15.2 Modeling PFAS Removal with GAC 15.2.1 Parameters 15.2.2 Parameter Determination 15.2.3 Modeling Full-scale Systems 15.2.4 Specific Throughput 15.2.5 Case Study: Short Bed Contactors 15.2.6 Case Study: Assessing Designs for Future Needs 15.3 Cost Modeling 15.3.1 Work Breakdown Structure Model 15.3.2 DoD Costing Example 15.4 Conclusions 15.5 Software Information Acknowledgments References Index A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Z