Extended Biocontrol

Description

This book presents an exhaustive overview of the theoretical foundations and practical applications of biocontrol in agriculture. It encompasses all kinds of nature-based approaches for crop protection: introduction and conservation of natural enemies, release of sterile insects, enhancement of plant defenses, use of microorganisms, biopesticides, and semiochemicals. Cutting-edge knowledge in population biology, microbial ecology, epidemiology and chemical ecology is presented in accessible terms. The potential of field application is discussed with regard to practical aspects but also socioeconomic constraints. The 62 authors are researchers from a large panel of disciplines, from theoretical biology to social sciences.    Preface Introduction Crops Need to Be Protected - But Differently Extended Biocontrol: A Fresh Look at an Age-Old Approach The Biocontrol Arsenal The Different Types of Biological Control Microbial Control Botanical Biopesticides Semiochemicals From the Lab to the Field Challenges to Be Tackled Combining Extended Biocontrol with Other Plant-Health Management Methods Contents Contributors Part I: Biological Control: Theoretical Foundations and Applications Chapter 1: Integrative Systematics and Adaptations of Natural Enemies to Their Hosts 1.1 Introduction 1.2 General Remarks on the Diversity of Macroorganisms for Biological Control 1.2.1 Taxonomic Diversity 1.2.2 Antagonistic Interactions Between Natural Enemies and Target Pests 1.3 The Underlying Challenges of Identifying Beneficial Macroorganisms 1.3.1 Identification Issues 1.3.2 Integrative Taxonomy: A Core Discipline 1.3.3 Other Benefits of Molecular Diagnostics 1.4 A Deeper Look at Three Cross-Cutting Eco-Evolutionary Themes 1.4.1 Ecological Specialization in Natural Enemies 1.4.2 Behavioural Adaptations in Natural Enemies: Finding Targets 1.4.3 Diversity of Symbionts in Natural Enemies 1.5 Conclusion Chapter 2: The Biology of Introduced Populations 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Ideas That Inspire 2.2.1 Science and Technology 2.2.2 Finding Equilibrium 2.2.3 Propagule Pressure 2.3 The Laws of Small Numbers 2.4 Lost Benefits at Small Numbers: The Allee Effect 2.4.1 Definitions 2.4.2 Allee Effect and Classical Biological Control 2.4.3 Allee Effect, Autocidal Control and Mating Disruption 2.5 Lower Genetic Diversity in Small Populations 2.6 Conclusion Chapter 3: Classical Biological Control 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Definition, History and Evolution 3.3 Foreign Exploration 3.4 Importing Exotic Material and Performing Laboratory Evaluations 3.5 Environmental Release of Biological Control Agents 3.6 Conclusion Chapter 4: Augmentative Biological Control Using Entomophagous Arthropods 4.1 Background and Definitions 4.1.1 The Blurred Line Between Inoculation and Inundation 4.1.2 A Brief History of Augmentative Biological Control 4.2 Current Challenges 4.2.1 Mass Production of Biological Control Agents 4.2.2 Business Models 4.2.3 Non-target Effects 4.3 Ways to Improve Augmentative Biological Control 4.3.1 Genetic Improvement of Biological Control Agents 4.3.2 Improving Mass Production 4.3.3 Resource Supplementation 4.3.4 Population Dynamics 4.3.5 Entomovectoring 4.4 Conclusion Chapter 5: Sterile Insect Technique: Principles, Deployment and Prospects 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Technical Basics 5.2.1 Mass Rearing the Target Insect 5.2.2 Sex Separation 5.2.3 Sterilization 5.2.4 Releases and Monitoring 5.3 Conditions of Application 5.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of SIT 5.4.1 Strengths 5.4.2 Limits 5.5 Future Research Avenues 5.5.1 Technical Improvements 5.5.2 Integration and Synergy 5.5.3 The Incompatible Insect Technique (IIT): A Complementary Approach 5.6 Environmental and Sociological Implications 5.7 Insects and Society 5.7.1 Transdisciplinary Synergy 5.7.2 Regulatory Framework 5.7.3 Economic Integration 5.8 Conclusion Part II: Stimulating Natural Pest Control in Agricultural Landscapes: Theoretical and Operational Insights into Conservation B... Chapter 6: Community Ecology, Food Webs and Natural Pest Control 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Types of Interactions Within Communities 6.3 Correlations Between the Horizontal Diversity of Natural Enemy Communities and Natural Pest Control 6.4 The Effect of Vertical Diversity of Communities on Natural Pest Control 6.4.1 Trophic Cascades 6.4.2 Trophic Structure and Network Stability 6.4.3 Modelling Ecological Network Assembly 6.4.4 Research Possibilities on Interaction Networks 6.5 Metacommunities and Landscape Ecology 6.5.1 Metacommunity Theory 6.5.2 Landscape Ecology: Landscape Organization Patterns and Ecological Processes 6.6 Conclusion Chapter 7: Agroecological Management of Insect Pests from Field to Landscape 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Principles of Conservation Biological Control 7.3 Effects of Farming Practices at Field Level 7.3.1 Plant Diversity over Space and Time 7.3.2 Nitrogen Fertilization 7.3.3 Tillage Practices 7.3.4 Organic Farming 7.4 Biological Pest Control at the Landscape Scale 7.4.1 Transition Areas Between Cultivated and Non-cultivated Habitats 7.4.2 Landscape Structure and Natural Pest Control 7.5 Conclusion Chapter 8: Biological Control for Weed Management 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Weed Control Using Sown Plants 8.2.1 Competition and Allelopathy 8.2.2 Weed Control Using Sown Plants 8.2.2.1 Field Management 8.2.2.2 Field Margins and Grass Strips 8.2.2.3 Landscape Composition and Configuration 8.3 Control by Seed-Eating Organisms 8.3.1 Weed Seed Predation 8.3.2 Seed Predation and Weed Control 8.3.3 Controlling Weed Seed Predation 8.3.3.1 Field Management 8.3.3.2 Field Margins 8.3.3.3 Landscape Composition and Configuration 8.4 Conclusion Part III: Microorganisms and Biological Control Chapter 9: Plant Microbiota: Diversity, Transmission and Function 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Microbial Diversity According to Habitats 9.3 Microbiota Assembly and Transmission Processes 9.4 Impact of the Plant Microbiota on Host Fitness 9.5 Leveraging the Microbiota to Improve Plant Growth and Health Chapter 10: Agroecological Protection to Support Plant Health: Where the Microbiota Fits In 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Agricultural Production and Pest Management 10.3 New Levers to Explore: Plant-Microbiota Interactions and Their Role in Agricultural Ecosystems 10.4 Connecting Microbiota and Agroecological Practices Chapter 11: Microorganisms as Biocontrol Products 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Biological Control: An Array of Microorganisms Described 11.3 Commercial Products 11.4 Mode of Action of Microbial Biocontrol Agents 11.4.1 Antibiosis 11.4.2 Hyperparasitism 11.4.3 Competing for Nutrients and Space 11.4.4 Interference with Pathogenicity 11.4.5 Modifying Plant Leaf Surface Properties 11.4.6 Induction of Host Plant Resistance 11.4.7 Combined Modes of Action 11.5 Factors Affecting the Efficacy of Microbial Biocontrol Agents 11.5.1 Local Environmental Context 11.5.2 Farming Practices 11.5.3 Biocontrol Product Quality and Method of Application 11.5.4 Variability of Target Pests 11.6 Conclusion Chapter 12: The Role of Microbial Metabolites in Biological Control 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Rhamnolipids: Multi-faceted Compounds 12.3 Lipopeptides: Structural and Activity Biodiversity 12.4 Polyketides Synthesized by Biological Control Agents of the Genus Pseudomonas 12.5 Conclusion Part IV: Botanical Biopesticides Chapter 13: Botanical Pesticides as Biocontrol Products 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Botanical Biopesticides and Organic Agriculture 13.3 Description of Botanical Biopesticides Currently Used as Biocontrol Products in France 13.3.1 Pyrethrins 13.3.2 Vegetable Oils: The Example of Rapeseed Oil 13.3.3 Essential Oils from Aromatic Plants 13.3.4 Fatty Acids: The Example of Pelargonic Acid 13.3.5 Sulphur Compounds in the Brassicaceae Family and Allium Genus 13.3.6 Maltodextrin 13.4 Conclusion Chapter 14: Challenges in Developing Botanical Biopesticides for Pest Control 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Applied Research Process for Compounds Based on Plant-Pest Interactions 14.3 Technical Obstacles to Overcome 14.3.1 Difficulties in Standardizing Plant Extract Production 14.3.2 Optimizing the Formulation for Effective and Durable Botanical Biopesticides 14.4 Side Effects to Be Considered 14.4.1 Pest Resistance to Natural Plant Extracts 14.4.2 Environmental Impact of These Products 14.5 Are Botanical Biopesticides Safe for Humans? Part V: Semiochemicals and Pest Control Chapter 15: Semiochemicals and Communication in Insects 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Semiochemicals Regulate Many Insect Behaviours 15.2.1 Intraspecific Signals 15.2.2 Interspecific Signals and Cues 15.3 An Extraordinary Diversity of Semiochemicals 15.3.1 Volatile Substances 15.3.2 Non-volatile Substances 15.4 Methods for Identifying Chemical Signals and Analysing Their Perception 15.4.1 Collecting Chemical Signals 15.4.2 Mixture Separation and Determination of Molecular Structure 15.4.3 Study of the Biological Effect of Semiochemicals 15.4.3.1 Electrophysiology 15.4.3.2 Studying Insect Behavioural Responses to Chemical Stimuli 15.5 Conclusion Chapter 16: Anatomy and Functioning of the Insect Chemosensory System 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Neurophysiological Organization of Chemosensory Systems 16.2.1 Chemoreceptor Organs and Sensilla 16.2.2 Chemoreceptor Neurons 16.2.3 Brain Centres of Chemosensation 16.3 Molecular Mechanisms of Chemosensory Detection 16.3.1 Chemosensory Receptors 16.3.2 Odorant Receptors (ORs) 16.3.3 Gustatory Receptors (GRs) 16.3.4 Ionotropic Receptors (IRs) 16.3.5 Soluble Proteins 16.3.6 Identifying Chemosensory Receptors in Insects 16.3.7 Functional Studies of Odorant Receptors 16.4 Neural Coding of Chemical Signals 16.5 Chemosensory Plasticity 16.5.1 Olfactory Plasticity 16.5.2 Gustatory Plasticity 16.6 Conclusion Chapter 17: Semiochemicals and Insect Control 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Different Uses of Semiochemicals for Insect Control 17.2.1 Insect Pest Population Monitoring 17.2.2 Mass Trapping and the Attract-and-Kill Approach 17.2.3 Mating Disruption 17.2.4 The Push-Pull Strategy with Companion Plants 17.2.5 Olfactory ``Resistant´´ Cultivars 17.3 Future Prospects 17.3.1 Better Exploiting Plant-Insect and Plant-Plant Communication 17.3.2 Microorganisms and Olfaction 17.3.3 Reverse Chemical Ecology: Understanding the Molecular Mechanisms of Olfactory Detection 17.4 Conclusion Part VI: Conditions for Successful Biocontrol and Its Large-Scale Deployment Chapter 18: The Challenge of Biocontrol Deployment 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Field-Scale Biocontrol Deployment: Success Factors 18.2.1 Introduced Macroorganisms and Microorganisms 18.2.2 Management of Pest Regulation Services Provided by Native and Introduced Macro- and Microorganisms 18.2.3 Natural Substances (of Animal, Plant or Mineral Origin) and Semiochemicals (Pheromones, Kairomones) 18.3 Area-Wide Deployment of Biocontrol 18.3.1 The Deployment of Certain Methods Must Be Considered at an Area-Wide Level 18.3.2 Managing Ecosystem Services at the Landscape Scale 18.3.3 Biocontrol Depends on Area-Wide Pest Management Strategies to Prevent Epidemics 18.3.4 How Sustainable Would Extended Biocontrol Deployment Be? 18.4 Diffusing Innovation Across the Value Chain Chapter 19: Biocontrol in France: Prospects for Structuring a Developing Sector 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Talking About Biocontrol: An Analysis Based on Scientific, Media and Institutional Discourse 19.3 The Role of Biocontrol in Agricultural Processing 19.3.1 The Green Revolution 19.3.2 Externalities 19.3.3 Markets and Intermediaries 19.4 Can Biocontrol Be Reduced to a Product Format? 19.5 Regulation: An Unsuitable Obstacle for Biocontrol Players, Uncertainty for Civil Society 19.6 Biocontrol and Placement on the Market: Moving Towards Pluralist Business Models 19.6.1 Classical Biological Control and Inoculation Biological Control: Towards an Alternative Business Model 19.6.2 Conservation Biological Control: A Focus on Services 19.6.3 Inundation Biological Control: Translating the Conventional Model 19.7 Conclusion Chapter 20: Integrating Biocontrol into Cropping System Design 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Systemic Agriculture Concepts and Methods 20.2.1 Cropping Means Implementing Practices in a Systemic Way 20.2.2 Growing Crops with Biocontrol Means Redesigning the Agricultural System 20.3 The Importance of the Systemic Nature of Biocontrol Solutions: Some Examples 20.3.1 In Horticulture, Releases of Organisms That Must Be Supported 20.3.2 In Field Crops, Developing Biocontrol Means Rethinking the Whole System 20.3.3 Inundative Releases of Trichogramma and Supporting Their Populations 20.3.4 Rethinking the Field and the Surrounding Area for Aphid Control Means a Comprehensive Redesign 20.3.4.1 In the Field Itself 20.3.4.2 Around the Field 20.4 New Issues, New Methods and New Regulations 20.4.1 Biocontrol Use Calls for Revising How Cropping Systems and the Solutions Themselves Are Evaluated 20.4.2 Reconsider How to Design and Include Farmers´ Innovations 20.4.3 Revise Economic Tools to Promote Biocontrol in Cropping Systems 20.5 Conclusion Chapter 21: New Technologies for the Deployment of Extended Biocontrol 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Seeds: A Target of Treatment and a Biocontrol Application Vector 21.2.1 The Strategic Importance of Seeds 21.2.2 Activating Immunity in Seed Plants and Seeds: A Lever for Extended Biocontrol 21.2.3 Seeds as a Target and Vector for Biocontrol Solutions 21.3 The Challenge of Formulating Biocontrol Substances and Organisms 21.3.1 Formulation: An Overview 21.3.2 Formulation for Extended Biocontrol: A Challenge for Industry 21.3.3 The Future of Formulation in Extended Biocontrol 21.4 Agricultural Equipment, Robotics and Digital Technology to Optimize Biocontrol 21.5 Conclusion Part VII: Is Biological Control a Sustainable Crop Protection Method? Chapter 22: Health and Biodiversity Risks Linked to a Major Bioinsecticide: Bacillus thuringiensis 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Bt Biopesticides 22.3 Possible Links to Health Risks Associated with Bt Products 22.4 Possible Sources of Bt Contamination 22.5 Persistence of Bt in the Environment and the Digestive Tract 22.6 The Environmental Impacts of Bt 22.7 Conclusion Chapter 23: Can Pests Develop Resistance to Biocontrol Products? 23.1 Many Biocontrol Agents on the Market, Variable Efficacy in the Field 23.2 Pest Adaptation to Plant Protection Methods 23.3 Proven Cases of Pest Resistance to Biocontrol Agents 23.4 Risk of Crop Pests and Diseases Developing Resistance to Biocontrol Agents 23.4.1 Estimating Diversity in the Level of Pest Resistance to Biocontrol Agents 23.4.2 Assessing Pests´ Adaptive Capacity to Biocontrol Agents 23.4.3 Impact of the Mode of Action of Biocontrol Agents on Their Durability 23.5 Conclusion Acronyms Glossary References