Photonic Instrumentation: Sensing and Measuring with Lasers

Description

Photonic Instrumentation: Sensing and Measuring with Lasersis designed as a source for university-level courses covering the essentials of laser-based instrumentation, and as a useful reference for working engineers. Photonic instruments have very desirable features like non-contact operation and unparalleled sensitivity. They have quickly become a big industrial success, passing unaffected through the bubble years and, not any less important, well-established methods in measurement science. This book offers coverage of the most proven instruments, with a balanced treatment of the optical and electronic aspects involved. It also attempts to present the basic principles, develop the guidelines of design and evaluate the ultimate limits of performances set by noise. The instruments surveyed include: alignment instruments, such as wire diameter and particle size analyzers, telemeters, laser interferometers and self-mixing interferometers, and speckle pattern instruments, laser doppler velocimeters, gyroscopes, optical fiber sensors and quantum sensing. A few appendices offer convenient reference material for key principles on lasers, optical interferometers, propagation, scattering and diffraction. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Contents Preface Preface to the First Edition Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1. Looking Back to Milestones References Chapter 2: Alignment, Pointing, and Sizing Instruments 2.1. Alignment 2.2. Pointing and Tracking 2.2.1. The Quadrant Photodiode 2.2.2. The Position Sensing Detector 2.3. Laser Level 2.4. Wire Diameter Sensor 2.5. Particle Sizing References Problems and Questions Chapter 3: Laser Telemeters 3.1. Triangulation 3.2. Time-of-Flight Telemeters 3.2.1. Power Budget 3.2.2. System Equation 3.2.3. Accuracy of the Pulsed Telemeter 3.2.3.1. Effect of Non-Idealities 3.2.3.2. Optimum Filter for Signal Timing 3.2.4. Accuracy of the Pulsed Long-Wave Telemeter 3.2.5. Accuracy of the Sine-Wave Telemeter 3.2.6. The Ambiguity Problem 3.2.7. Intrinsic Accuracy and Calibration 3.2.8. Transmitter and Receiver Optics 3.3. Instrumental Developments of Telemeters 3.3.1. Pulsed Telemeter 3.3.1.1. Improvement to the Basic Pulsed Setup 3.3.1.2. Enhancing Resolution with Slow Pulses 3.3.1.3. Slow Pulse Telemeters for the Automotive (LiDAR) 3.3.2. Sine-Wave Telemeter 3.4. 3D and Imaging Telemeters 3.5. LIDAR and LADAR References Problems and Questions Chapter 4: Laser Interferometry 4.1. Overview of Interferometry Applications 4.2. The Basic Laser Interferometer 4.2.1. The Two-Beam Laser Interferometer 4.2.2. The Two-Frequency Laser Interferometer 4.2.2.1. Extending the Digital Displacement Measurements to Nanometers 4.2.2.2. Integrated Optics Interferometers 4.2.3. The FMCW Interferometer for Distance Measurement 4.2.4. Comb Frequency Interferometry 4.2.5. Measuring with the Laser Interferometer 4.2.5.1. Multiaxis Extension 4.2.5.2. Measurement of Angle and Planarity 4.2.5.3. Rectangularity Measurement 4.2.5.4. Extending the Measurement on Diffusing Targets 4.3. Operation Mode and Performance Parameters 4.4. Ultimate Limits of Performance 4.4.1. Quantum Noise Limit 4.4.2. Temporal Coherence 4.4.3. Spatial Coherence and Polarization State 4.4.4. Dispersion of the Medium 4.4.5. Thermodynamic Phase Noise 4.4.6. Brownian Motion 4.4.7. Speckle-Related Errors 4.5. Vibration Sensing 4.5.1. Short Stand-off Vibrometry 4.5.2. Long Stand-off Vibrometry 4.6. Read-Out Configurations of Interferometry 4.6.1. Internal Configuration 4.6.2. Injection (or Self-Mixing) Configuration 4.7. White Light Interferometry and OCT 4.7.1. Profilometry for Industrial Applications 4.7.2. OCT for Biomedical Applications References Problems and Questions Chapter 5: Self-Mixing Interferometry 5.1. Injection at Weak-Feedback Level 5.1.1. Bandwidth and Noise of the SMI 5.1.2. The He-Ne SMI 5.2. Analysis of Injection at Medium-Feedback Level 5.2.1. Analysis by the Three Mirror Model 5.2.2. Analysis by the Lang-Kobayashi Equations 5.3. The Laser Diode SMI 5.3.1. Design of an SMI Displacement Instrument: A Case Study 5.3.2. Recovering the FM Channel in a SMI 5.4. Self-Mixing Vibrometers 5.4.1. An SMI Vibrometer Locked at Half-Fringe 5.4.2. Differential Vibrometer for Measuring Mechnical Hysteresis 5.4.3. A Plain Vibrometer for Micro Target 5.5. Absolute Distance Measurement by SMI 5.6. Alignment and Angle Measurements 5.6.1. Radius of Curvature Measurement 5.7. Detection of Weak Optical Echoes 5.7.1. Consumer Applications of Self-Mixing 5.8. SMI Measurements of Physical Quantities 5.8.1. Linewidth Measurement by SMI 5.8.2. SMI Measurements of Alpha and C Factors 5.8.3. SMI Measurements of Thickness and Index of Refraction 5.9. SMI Measurements for Medicine and Biology References Problems and Questions Chapter 6: Speckle-Pattern and Applications 6.1. Speckle Properties 6.1.1. Basic Description 6.1.2. Statistical Analysis 6.1.3. Speckle Size from Acceptance 6.1.4. Joint Distributions of Speckle Statistics 6.1.5. Speckle Phase Errors 6.1.6. Additional Errors due to Speckle 6.2. Speckle in Single-Point Interferometers 6.2.1. Speckle Regime in Vibration Measurements 6.2.2. Speckle Regime in Displacement Measurements 6.2.3. Correction of the Speckle Phase Error 6.3. Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry References Problems and Questions Chapter 7: Velocimeters 7.1. Principle of Operation 7.1.1. The Velocimeter as an Interferometer 7.2. Performance of the LDV 7.2.1. Scale Factor Relative Error 7.2.2. Accuracy of the Doppler Frequency 7.2.3. Size of the Sensing Region 7.2.4. Alignment and Positioning Errors 7.2.5. Placement of the Photodetector 7.2.6. Direction Discrimination 7.2.7. Particle Seeding 7.3. Processing of the LDV Signal 7.3.1. Time-Domain Processing of the LDV Signal 7.3.2. Frequency-Domain Processing of the LDV Signal 7.4. Particle Image Velocimetry 7.5. SMI Velocimeters and Flowmeters References Problems and Questions Chapter 8: Gyroscopes 8.1. Overview 8.2. The Sagnac Effect 8.2.1. The Sagnac Effect and Relativity 8.2.2. Sagnac Phase Signal and Phase Noise 8.3. Basic Gyro Configurations 8.4. Development of the RLG 8.4.1. The Dithered Laser Ring Gyro 8.4.2. The Ring Zeeman Laser Gyro 8.4.3. Performances of RLGs 8.5. Development of the Fiber Optic Gyro 8.5.1. The Open-Loop Fiber Optic Gyro 8.5.2. Requirements on FOG Components 8.5.3. The Shupe effect 8.5.4. Technology to Implement the FOG 8.5.5. The Closed-Loop FOG 8.6. The Resonant FOG and Other Configurations 8.7. The 3x3 FOG for the Automotive 8.8. The MEMS Gyro and Other Approaches 8.8.1. MEMS 8.8.2. Piezoelectric Gyro References Problems and Questions Chapter 9: Optical Fiber Sensors 9.1. Introduction 9.1.1. OFS Classification 9.1.2. Outline of OFS 9.2. The Optical Strain Gage: A Case Study 9.3. Readout Configurations 9.3.1. Intensity Readout 9.3.2. Polarimetric Readout 9.3.2.1. Circular Birefringence Readout 9.3.2.2. Performance of the Current OFS 9.3.2.3. Linear Birefringence Readout 9.3.2.4. Combined Birefringence Readout 9.3.2.5. An Extrinsic Polarimetric Temperature OFS 9.3.3. Interferometric Readout 9.3.3.1. Phase Responsivity to Measurands 9.3.3.2. Examples of Interferometric OFS 9.3.3.3. White-Light Interferometric OFS 9.3.3.4. Coherence-Assisted Readout 9.4. Multiplexed and Distributed OFS 9.4.1. Multiplexing 9.4.2. Distributed Sensors References Problems and Questions Chapter 10: Quantum Sensing 10.1. Squeezed States Sensing 10.1.1. Classical Quantum Noise Performances 10.1.2. Squeezed States 10.2. Entangled States References Appendix A0: Nomenclature Appendix A1: Lasers for Instrumentation A1.1. Laser Basics A1.1.1. Conditions of Oscillation A1.1.2. Coherence A1.1.3. Types of He-Ne Lasers A1.2. Frequency Stabilization of the He-Ne Laser A1.2.1. Frequency Reference and Error Signal A1.2.2. Actuation of the Cavity Length A1.2.3. Ultimate Frequency Stability Limits A1.3. Narrow-Line and Frequency Stabilized LDs A1.3.1. Types and Parameters of LDs A1.3.2. Narrow-Line and Tunable LDs A1.4. Diode-Pumped Solid-State Lasers A1.5. Laser Safety Issues References Appendix A2: Optical Interferometers A2.1. Configurations and Performances A2.2. Choice of Optical Components References Appendix A3: Propagation Through the Atmosphere A3.1. Turbidity A3.2. Turbulence References Appendix A4: Propagation and Diffraction A5.1. Propagation A5.2. The Fresnel Approximation A5.3. Examples References Appendix A5: Source of Information on Photonic Instrumentation Index