Insect Chronobiology

Description

This book reviews the physiological mechanisms of diverse insect clocks, including circadian clock, lunar clock, tidal clock, photoperiodism, circannual rhythms and others. It explains the commonality and diversity of insect clocks, focusing on the recent advances in their molecular and neural mechanisms.    In the history of chronobiology, insects provided important examples of diverse clocks. The first report of animal photoperiodism was in an aphid, and the time-compensated celestial navigation was first shown in the honeybee. The circadian clock was first localized in the brain of a cockroach. These diverse insect clocks also have some common features which deserve to be reviewed in a single book. The central molecular mechanism of the circadian clock, i.e., the negative feedback loop of clock genes, was proposed in Drosophila melanogaster in the 1990s and later became the subject of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2017. Thereafter, researches on the molecular and neural mechanisms in diverse insect clocks other than the Drosophila circadian clock also advanced appreciably. Various new methods including RNAi, NGS, and genome editing with CRISPR-Cas9 have become applicable in these researches.   This book comprehensively reviews the physiological mechanisms in diverse insect clocks in the last two decades, which have received less attention than the Drosophila circadian clock. The book is intended for researchers, graduate students, and highly motivated undergraduate students in biological sciences, especially in entomology and chronobiology.  Foreword Preface Contents Chapter 1: Historical Survey of Chronobiology with Reference to Studies in Insects 1.1 What Is Chronobiology? 1.2 From Folklore to Natural History 1.3 From Natural History to Experimental Science 1.4 Endogenous or Exogenous? 1.5 Localization of the Circadian Clock 1.6 Molecular Mechanism of the Circadian Clock 1.7 Future Forecast References Part I: Insect Circadian Rhythms Chapter 2: General Feature of Circadian Rhythms 2.1 Introduction: Self-Sustaining Rhythm 2.2 Free-Running Period: Dependency on Environmental Conditions 2.3 Temperature Compensation 2.4 Entrainment to Environmental Cycles 2.5 Range of Entrainment 2.6 Relative Coordination 2.7 Masking Effect of Light 2.8 Multioscillator System and Internal Desynchronization of Rhythms 2.9 Aftereffects 2.10 Future Perspectives References Chapter 3: Neural and Molecular Mechanisms of Entrainment 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Photic Entrainment and Circadian Photoreceptors 3.3 Molecular Mechanism of Photic Entrainment 3.3.1 Cry-Dependent Pathway 3.3.2 Compound Eye-Dependent Pathway 3.4 Temperature Entrainment 3.4.1 Role of Temperature in Phase Setting 3.4.2 Molecular Mechanism of Temperature Entrainment 3.5 Entrainment by Restricted Feeding 3.6 Future Perspectives References Chapter 4: Molecular Mechanism of the Circadian Clock 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Clock Setup in Drosophila 4.2.1 Period and Drosophila-Type Timeless 4.2.2 Posttranslational Modifications 4.2.3 Entrainment by Light 4.2.4 Protein Degradation 4.2.5 bZIP Proteins PDP1, VRI, and KAY 4.2.6 Clockwork Orange (CWO) 4.2.7 Nuclear Receptors E75, HR3, and UNF 4.2.8 Regulation of the Drosophila Clock at the RNA Level 4.2.9 Network Properties of the Clock 4.2.10 Temperature and the Clock 4.3 Lineage-Specific Variations in the Clock Setup 4.3.1 Unique Features of the Drosophila (Cyclorrhaphan) Clock 4.3.2 Losses of CRYd and TIMd 4.3.3 JET and FBXL3/21 Proteins 4.3.4 Conserved Components of Insect Clocks 4.3.5 Descriptive Studies 4.4 Conclusion and Future Perspective References Chapter 5: Neurocircuitry of Circadian Clocks 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Small Ventral Lateral Neurons in Drosophila 5.3 Outputs from the Drosophila Clock Neurons 5.3.1 Pigment-Dispersing Factor 5.3.2 Neuropeptides 5.3.3 Glutamate, Acetylcholine, and Glycine 5.3.4 Gap Junctions 5.3.5 Output Modes 5.4 Functional Differentiation of Individual Clock Neuron Groups in Drosophila 5.4.1 Morning and Evening Oscillators in the Drosophila Circadian Clock 5.4.2 s-LNv Neurons as the Master Clock? 5.4.3 DN1p Neurons as Circadian Output Centers 5.5 Downstream Neurons of the Drosophila Circadian Clock 5.6 Clock Neuron Networks in Other Insect Species 5.7 Bilateral Coupling Between Two Optic Lobe Clocks 5.8 Conclusion Remarks References Chapter 6: Peripheral Circadian Clock 6.1 Introduction 6.2 General Features of Peripheral Circadian Clocks 6.3 Various Peripheral Clocks 6.3.1 Compound Eyes 6.3.2 Antenna and Proboscis 6.3.3 Digestive Organs, Excretory Organs, and Fat Body 6.3.4 Epidermis: Cuticle Deposition 6.3.5 Male Reproductive Organ: Sperm Release 6.3.6 Prothoracic Gland 6.3.7 Oenocyte 6.4 Summary and Perspective References Chapter 7: Circabidian Rhythm 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Circabidian Rhythm in the Mosquito Culiseta incidens 7.3 Circabidian Rhythm in Holotrichia Species 7.3.1 Three Characteristics of Biological Rhythms in the Circabidian Rhythm of the Ground Emergence Activity 7.3.2 Phase Response of the Circabidian Rhythm to Light Pulses 7.3.3 The Optic Lobe-Pars Intercerebralis Axis in the Brain Is Involved in Circabidian Rhythm of H. parallela 7.3.3.1 Roles of the Optic Lobe 7.3.3.2 Roles of the Pars Intercerebralis 7.3.4 Two-Day Rhythm of H. parallela in the Field 7.4 Origin of the Circabidian Rhythm in the Genus Holotrichia 7.5 Mechanism for Doubling the Circadian Clock Cycle 7.6 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 8: Circadian Behavioral Rhythms in Social Insects 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Examples of Circadian Behavioral Rhythms in Social Insects 8.3 Entrainment to Abiotic and Social Cycles 8.4 Social Influences on the Ontogeny of Circadian Rhythms 8.5 Task- and Maternity-Related Circadian Rhythm Plasticity 8.6 Closing Remarks References Chapter 9: Environmental Adaptation and Evolution of Circadian Clocks 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Light-Dark Cycles as a Selection Pressure for the Evolution of Endogenous Clocks 9.3 Impact of Temperature Cycles on Circadian Clocks 9.4 Evolution of Circadian Rhythms: Insights from Laboratory Selection Studies 9.4.1 Evolution of Clocks Under Aperiodic Environments 9.4.2 Evolution of Clocks Under Periodic Environments 9.5 Influence of Circadian Clocks on Life-History Traits 9.6 Diversity in Circadian Clock Function in Insects and Further Considerations 9.7 Evolutionary Consequences of Climate Change on Insect Clocks and Future Perspectives References Part II: Other Types of Insect Rhythms and Photoperiodsim Chapter 10: Lunar and Tidal Rhythms and Clocks 10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 The Moon Causes Environmental Cycles with Different Periods 10.1.2 Organisms Anticipate Moon-Related Cycles by Endogenous Circasemilunar, Circalunar, and Circatidal Clocks 10.1.3 Evolutionary Significance of Circatidal, Circasemilunar, and Circalunar Clocks: Why Should We Study Lunar and Tidal Rhy... 10.1.3.1 The Adaptive Benefits of Circalunar and Circatidal Clocks 10.1.3.2 Diversity of Circatidal and Circalunar Clocks 10.1.3.3 Temporal Organization on Different Time Scales 10.2 Circatidal Clocks in Hexapods 10.2.1 Collembola: Anurida maritima 10.2.2 Coleoptera: Thalassotrechus barbarae and Callytron inspecularis 10.2.3 Orthoptera: Apteronemobius asahinai 10.2.3.1 The Circatidal Activity Rhythm in the Mangrove Cricket Free-Runs Under LL and DD 10.2.3.2 Inundation Stimuli Entrain the Circatidal Rhythm in the Mangrove Cricket 10.2.4 Involvement of the Circadian Clock in Circatidal Time-Keeping 10.2.4.1 Molecular and Neurophysiological Data Support an Independent Circatidal Pacemaker in the Mangrove Cricket 10.2.5 Tidal Non-oscillatory Timing Mechanisms 10.3 Circalunar Clocks in Insects 10.3.1 Lunar Rhythms of Insects in Terrestrial Habitats 10.3.2 Lunar Rhythms of Insects in Marine Habitats 10.3.2.1 The Case of Clunio The Semilunar Emergence Rhythm of Clunio Is Free-Running and Temperature-Compensated Moonlight, Tidal Turbulence, and Temperature Cycles Can Entrain the Circalunar Clock of Clunio 10.3.2.2 The Case of Pontomyia 10.3.3 The Role of the Circadian Clock in Circalunar Time-Keeping 10.3.4 Molecular and Genetic Data on Circalunar Time-Keeping in Insects 10.4 Conclusions References Chapter 11: Circannual Rhythms 11.1 Circannual Rhythms Corresponding to an Annual Cycle 11.2 Pupation Rhythm of the Varied Carpet Beetle 11.2.1 Early Reports 11.2.2 Stability of Circannual Period 11.2.3 Entrainment to a Natural Annual Cycle 11.2.4 Phase Resetting by Photoperiodic Change 11.2.5 Phase Response Curve and Phase Singularity 11.2.6 Effects of Low Temperature as a Zeitgeber 11.2.7 Mechanisms Producing Circannual Rhythms 11.2.8 Circadian Clock in Photoperiodic Time Measurement for Circannual Rhythms 11.3 Pupation Rhythms of Other Carpet Beetles 11.4 Pupation Rhythm of the Carpenter Moth 11.5 Oviposition Rhythms of Queen Ants 11.6 Conclusions References Chapter 12: General Features of Photoperiodism 12.1 Classification of Photoperiodism 12.1.1 Photoperiodism Controlling Dimorphic and Continuous Phenotypes 12.1.2 Threshold and Quantitative Responses 12.1.3 Long-Day and Short-Day Responses 12.1.4 Threshold Response in Dimorphic and Continuous Phenotypes 12.1.5 Coexistence of Threshold and Quantitative Responses 12.1.6 Quantitative Properties in Threshold Responses 12.1.7 Response to Changes in Photoperiod 12.2 Theoretical Models for Photoperiodic Time Measurement 12.3 Photoreceptors for Photoperiodism 12.4 Conclusions References Chapter 13: Molecular Mechanisms of Photoperiodism 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Photoreceptors 13.3 Photoperiodic Time Measurement 13.4 Circadian Clocks Involved in Photoperiodic Time Measurement 13.4.1 A Case of the Model Insect Drosophila melanogaster 13.4.2 Cases of Species Other than Drosophila melanogaster 13.4.3 Circadian Output Signaling 13.5 Photoperiodic Counter 13.6 Omics Approaches 13.7 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 14: Neural Mechanism of Photoperiodism 14.1 Introduction 14.2 General Scheme for Photoperiodic Mechanisms 14.2.1 Photoreceptors 14.2.2 Photoperiodic Clock and Counter 14.2.3 Neurosecretory System 14.3 Neural Circuitry and Its Functions Proposed in Different Species 14.3.1 Blow Fly Protophormia terraenovae 14.3.1.1 Neurosecretory System 14.3.1.2 Clock Cells and Their Importance in Photoperiodic Neural Circuitry 14.3.1.3 Plausible Function of the Clock Neuron Network in Photoperiodic Time Measurement 14.3.2 Sternorrhyncha aphids, Megoura viciae, and Acyrthosiphon pisum 14.3.2.1 Neurosecretory System and ILP in the PI 14.3.2.2 Mapping of Circadian Clock Cells with Neurosecretory Cells in the Brain 14.3.3 Heteropteran Bugs Riptortus pedestris, Pyrrhocoris apterus, and Plautia stali 14.3.3.1 Dual Neurosecretory Systems Controlling Independent Reproductive Activities in Photoperiodic Response of R. pedestris 14.3.3.2 Clock Cells and Relevant Neurons to Photoperiodic Responses 14.4 Future Perspectives References Chapter 15: Seasonal Timer in Aphids 15.1 Life Cycle and Photoperiodism of Aphids 15.2 History of the Discovery of the Seasonal Timer 15.3 Physiological Characteristics of the Seasonal Timer 15.4 Ecological and Evolutionary Aspects of the Seasonal Timer 15.5 Possible Mechanism of the Seasonal Timer 15.6 Future Perspectives References Chapter 16: Time-Compensated Celestial Navigation 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Honey Bee Flight Using the Sun as a Compass 16.2.1 Navigating with a Clock 16.2.2 Shifting the Circadian Clock with Anesthesia and Its Effect on the Time Compensation of the Sun Compass 16.3 Long-Distance Migration Using a Time-Compensated Sun Compass in the Monarch Butterfly 16.3.1 The Remarkable Journey 16.3.2 Sensing the Position of the Sun 16.3.3 Testing the Time Compensation of the Sun Compass 16.3.4 Location of the Mechanism for Time-Compensated Sun-Compass Orientation 16.4 Time-Compensated Moon Compass 16.5 Conclusions References Subject Index Taxonomic Index