Atmospheric Chemistry in the Mediterranean Region: Volume 2 - From Air Pollutant Sources to Impacts

Description

This two-volume set provides an extensive review of the abundant past and recent literature on the atmospheric chemistry in the Mediterranean region. ­The books document the experience gained on the atmospheric composition over the Mediterranean basin and close areas after six decades of research, starting from early studies of radioactive aerosol fallouts and intense desert dust events in the 1960s, followed by studies of aerosols collected during oceanographic cruises in the early 1980s, and including subsequent knowledge from various surface monitoring stations, intensive campaigns, satellite climatologies, laboratory studies, as well as chemistry-transport and climate models. ­Through ten thematic sections, the authors examine the sources and fates of atmospheric pollutants over the Mediterranean basin and what we know about the main impacts of the regional atmospheric chemistry. ­This overview not only considers the full regional cycle of both aerosol and reactive gases including emissions, transport, transformations, and sinks, but also addresses their major impacts on air quality and health, on the radiative budget and climate, on marine chemistry and biogeochemistry . ­ The volumes are an initiative from the ChArMEx project that has federated many studies on those topics in the 2010-2020decade, and update the scientific knowledge by integrating the ChArMEx and non-ChArMEx literature. ­The books are contributed by a large pool of well-known authors from the respective fields, mainly from France and Greece, but also from six other Mediterranean and eight non-Mediterranean countries. All Chapters have been peer-reviewed by international scientific experts in the corresponding domains. Volume 2 focuses on emissions and their sources, recent progress on chemical processes, aerosol properties, atmospheric deposition, and the impacts of air pollution on human health, regional climate and ecosystems. Recommendations for future research in these fields are finally proposed. The targeted audience is the academic community working on atmospheric chemistry and its impacts, especially teams having an l interest in the Mediterranean region, which includes many countries and institutes worldwide. Foreword Preface and Acknowledgments Abstract (same as Vol. 1) Contents Contents Contents Contributors Introduction to the Volume 2 of Atmospheric Chemistry in the Mediterranean Region 1 Introduction 2 Content of Volume 2: From Atmospheric Chemistry to the Mediterranean Inhabitability 3 Conclusion References Part V: Emissions and Sources Sea Spray Emissions 1 Introduction 2 Parameters Influencing the Sea Spray Emission Fluxes 3 Chemical Composition of Sea Spray 4 Sea Spray Emissions and Derived Cloud Condensation and Ice Nuclei 5 Conclusion and Recommendations References Emissions from the Mediterranean Vegetation 1 Introduction 2 Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds 2.1 BVOC Emission Sources in Terrestrial Ecosystems 2.2 Determination of BVOCs: Speciation and Emissions/Fluxes at Different Scales Branch Scale Canopy Scale Landscape Scale OH Reactivity as an Approach to Determine the Completeness of Measured BVOCs 2.3 Factors Controlling Future BVOC Emissions in the Mediterranean Context: A Modelling Perspective 3 Bioaerosols 4 Conclusion and Recommendations References Soil Dust Emissions 1 Introduction 2 Processes and Quantification of Dust Emissions 2.1 Dust Emission Physical Processes 2.2 Quantification of Dust Emission 3 Meteorological Situations Favorable to Dust Emission and Transport Toward the Mediterranean 4 Dust Source Regions of Interest for the Mediterranean 5 Dust Composition as a Tracer of Source Regions 6 Conclusion and Perspectives References Anthropogenic Emissions of Reactive Compounds in the Mediterranean Region 1 Anthropogenic Emissions at the Scale of the Mediterranean Basin: Intensity and Variability 1.1 Emission Inventories 1.2 The Regional Mediterranean Emissions Trends in Anthropogenic Emissions Comparing Western-Eastern Basins and Northern-Southern Basins The Road Transport Sector The Maritime Sector The Biomass Burning 2 Anthropogenic Emissions at Urban Scale 2.1 Past Studies in the Mediterranean Basin Prior to ChArMEx 2.2 The TRANSEMED Initiative in the Eastern Mediterranean Context Source-apportionment Methodology Based on Ambient and Near-Source Measurements Source Apportionment of Anthropogenic VOC Emission Contribution Comparison of Source Apportionment of VOCs 2.3 Observations as Relevant Constraints to Evaluate Emission Inventories: VOCs as Target Compounds Methodology: Emission Ratios Derived from Direct Observations and PMF Factors Evaluation of Emissions Based on Observations and PMF Results and National and Global Emission Inventories Evaluation of the Speciation of Global Emission Inventories Downscaled to Beirut 3 Conclusion and Recommendations References Ultrafine Particle Emissions in the Mediterranean 1 Introduction 2 Airborne Experiments in the Mediterranean 3 History of Ultrafine Particle Concentration Levels in the Mediterranean 4 Major Contributions to the Mediterranean UFP Budget 5 Conclusion and Recommendations References Part VI: Recent Progress on Chemical Processes Total OH Reactivity 1 Total OH Reactivity Concept and Applications 1.1 OH Radical Sources 1.2 Unmeasured Atmospheric Constituents 1.3 Ozone Production Potential 1.4 Particle Formation 2 Measuring the OH Reactivity 3 OH Reactivity Measurements in the Mediterranean Basin 4 Conclusions and Recommendations References Ozone Photochemical Production Rates in the Western Mediterranean 1 Introduction 2 Boundary-Layer Pressurized Balloons and Adapted ECC Sondes 3 Ozone Production over the Mediterranean as Seen from the BLPBs 4 Conclusions and Recommendations References Nucleation in the Mediterranean Atmosphere 1 Introduction 2 Overview of Observations of NPF in the Mediterranean Basin 3 Nucleation from Marine Sources? 4 Impact of NPF on Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN) and Cloud Droplet Number (CDN) 5 Conclusion and Recommendations References Secondary Aerosol Formation and Their Modeling 1 Introduction 2 Organic Aerosols 2.1 Organic Aerosol Properties Carbon Origin Oxidation Solubility 2.2 Origins and Formation Pathways Biogenic Marine Aerosol Anthropogenic Maritime Traffic Wildfires 3 Inorganic Aerosols 4 Conclusions and Recommendations References Particle-Gas Multiphasic Interactions 1 Introduction 2 Interconnection Between Gas Phase and Aerosol Compounds During the Summer 2013 ChArMEx Field Campaign 3 Partitioning of Organic Carbon Between the Gaseous and Particulate Phase 4 Conclusions and Recommendations References Part VII: Mediterranean Aerosol Properties Aerosol Size Distribution 1 Preamble and Definitions 2 Observations 2.1 Ground-Based Remote Sensing Measurements 2.2 In Situ Measurements 2.3 In Situ Observations of the Ultrafine Particle Mode 2.4 In Situ Observations of the Coarse Mineral Dust Particle Mode 3 Synthesis of Observations 4 Summary and Challenges for Future Research References Aerosol Composition and Reactivity 1 Preamble and Definitions 1.1 Non-carbonaceous Aerosol Composition 1.2 Carbonaceous Aerosol 2 Aerosol Mixing and Reactivity 3 Aerosol Chemical Reactivity 3.1 Mineral Dust 3.2 Sea Salt 3.3 Aerosol Neutralization by NH3 3.4 Carbonaceous Aerosol 4 Summary and Challenges for Future Research References Aerosol Optical Properties 1 Introduction 2 Dataset 3 Aerosol Optical Depth 4 Aerosol Single-Scattering Albedo 5 Asymmetry Parameter 6 Aerosol Extinction-to-Backscatter Ratio 7 Challenges for Future Research References Aerosol Hygroscopicity 1 Preamble and Definitions 2 Hygroscopic Properties at Subsaturated Conditions 3 Hygroscopic Properties at Supersaturated Conditions 4 Ice Nuclei Particles 5 Summary and Challenges for Future Research References Part VIII: Deposition in the Mediterranean Region Mass Deposition 1 Introduction 2 Deposition Processes 3 Mass Deposition in the Mediterranean 4 Daily, Seasonal and Annual Variability of Dust Deposition 5 Conclusion References Nutrient Deposition and Variability 1 Introduction 2 Nitrogen Fluxes 3 Phosphorus Fluxes 4 Conclusion and Recommendations References Trace Metals and Contaminants Deposition 1 Particulate Trace Metals 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Sources and Variability 1.3 Solubility 2 Organic Contaminants 3 Conclusion and Recommendations References Part IX: Impacts of Air Pollution on Precipitation Chemistry and Climate Aerosol and Tropospheric Ozone Direct Radiative Impacts 1 Introduction 2 Aerosol Direct Radiative Forcing 2.1 Direct Radiative Effect at the Surface 2.2 Aerosol Direct Radiative Forcing at TOA 2.3 Trends in Surface Solar Radiation over the Mediterranean Basin 3 Implication for Photochemical Processes and Solar Energy Production 3.1 Impact on Photolysis 3.2 Impact of Aerosol Dimming on the Solar Energy Production PV Forecasting and Aerosol Impact over the Mediterranean Area Dust Deposition on PV Panels Future PV Projections and the Role of Aerosols 4 Radiative Forcing of Tropospheric Ozone 5 Conclusion and Recommendations References Aerosol-Cloud Interactions and Impact on Regional Climate 1 Introduction 1.1 Climate-Aerosol Interactions 1.2 Aerosol Indirect Effects 1.3 Other Cloud-Aerosol Interactions 1.4 Clouds and Aerosols Over the Mediterranean 2 Aerosol-Cloud Interactions By Aerosol Type 2.1 The Case of Dust Particles 2.2 The Case of Sea-Salt Particles 2.3 The Case of Anthropogenic Particles 3 Implications for Regional Climate 3.1 Impact of Aerosol-Cloud Interactions on Regional Radiative Budget 3.2 Implications for Surface Temperatures 3.3 Aerosol Impact on Cloud Parameters 3.4 Aerosol Impact on Precipitation 3.5 Trends in Aerosol-Cloud Interactions 4 Conclusion and Recommendations References Aerosol Impacts on Atmospheric and Precipitation Chemistry 1 Introduction 2 Aerosol Impacts on Tropospheric Chemistry 2.1 Impact of Aerosols on Oxidants Through Interactions with Light 2.2 Heterogeneous Reactions on Aerosol Surfaces 2.3 Evidence of Heterogeneous Reactions in Field Studies 2.4 Biomass Burning Products Impacts on Trace Pollutants 2.5 Insights from Global Modeling Studies 3 Aerosols and Atmospheric Acidity 3.1 Aerosol pH in the Mediterranean 3.2 Dust Acidification and Nutrients 4 Conclusion and Perspectives References Part X: Impacts of Air Pollution on Human Health and Ecosystems Air Quality and Health Impacts 1 Introduction 2 Assessing Air Pollution Exposure at the Individual Level 2.1 Level of Exposure 2.2 Methods for Assessing Exposure 3 Short-Term Effects 3.1 The Effect of Particulate Matter on Human Health Mortality Studies Morbidity Studies Desert Dust and Health Effects Health Impacts of Combustion Products 3.2 Impacts of Gaseous Pollutants 4 Long-Term Effects 5 Modeling and Projections 6 Other Diseases Related to Air Pollution 7 Mitigation and Adaptation 8 Conclusion and Recommendations References Impact of Atmospheric Deposition on Marine Chemistry and Biogeochemistry 1 Introduction 2 Water Body Impacted by Atmospheric Inputs 3 Particle Dissolution in Seawater and Impacts on Marine Chemistry 3.1 Batch Experiments 3.2 Mesocosm and Minicosm Experiments 3.3 In Situ Measurements 4 Impact on Ecosystems: From Experiments to In Situ Observations and Models 4.1 Direct Impact (Fertilization) Artificial Fertilization Experiments Satellite Observations Models 4.2 Indirect Impact on Carbon Export (“Lithogenic Carbon Pump”) 5 Conclusions and Perspectives References Impact of Air Pollution on Terrestrial Ecosystems 1 Introduction 2 Pollutant Uptake by the Plants 3 Pollutant Reactions Inside the Plant 4 Plant’s Response to Pollution Exposure 5 Symptomatology of Plants Affected by Air Pollution 5.1 Symptoms 5.2 Biotic and Abiotic Indicators and Biomonitoring of Air Quality 5.3 Eutrophication, Acidification, Critical Loads 6 Interactions and Covariates Between Plants, Air Pollutants, and Environment 7 Impacts of Air Pollutants on Terrestrial Vegetation of the Mediterranean Region 7.1 Vegetation Exposure to Ground Level Ozone 7.2 Vegetation Exposure to Nitrogen Oxides 7.3 Accumulation of Toxic Metal Air Pollutants on Vegetation and Soil 7.4 Plant Nutrient Uptake Limitations Induced by Air Pollution 8 Conclusions and Perspectives References Summary of Recent Progress and Recommendations for Future Research Regarding Air Pollution Sources, Processes, and Impacts in the Mediterranean Region 1 Introduction 2 Main Conclusions 2.1 Anthropogenic and Natural Emissions of Air Pollutants 2.2 Chemical Processes 2.3 Aerosol Properties 2.4 Atmospheric Deposition 2.5 Impacts 3 Main Recommendations 3.1 Safeguard the Regional Integration of the Mediterranean Scientific Community 3.2 Improve Emission Data Improve our Knowledge of Natural Emission Sources Improve Anthropogenic Air Pollutant Emission Inventories 3.3 Better Evaluate Ozone Production and Characterize Impacts Study the Atmospheric Oxidant Budget Study the Impact of Ozone Forcing on Atmospheric Dynamics and Chemistry and the Future Evolution of Ozone 3.4 Conduct Multiparametric Investigations of Aerosols Improve the Understanding of Secondary Aerosol Formation Processes Document and Model the Gas-Particle Partitioning and Aerosol Surface Reactions Improve Understanding of Relationships between Aerosol Composition and Optical Properties Use Satellite Observations to Broaden Perspective on Aerosol Spatial and Temporal Variabilities Perform New Laboratory Studies that Simulate the Mediterranean Atmosphere in Addition to Field Experiments, to Investigate Aerosol Particle Reactivity and Evolution Investigate the Connection between the Concentration of Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN) and the Cloud Droplet Number Concentration Investigate the Chemical Speciation of Particles Serving as Ice Nuclei by Combining Field and Laboratory Experiments Enlarge the Bioaerosol Measurement Network 3.5 Pursue the Monitoring of Atmospheric Deposition to Better Constrain Models Evaluate the Contribution of Aerosol Particle Types to the Total Mass Deposition Reinforce Long-Term Measurements of Nutrient Deposition over the Basin Better Represent Spatial and Temporal Variabilities of Trace Metal and Organic Contaminant Deposition Further Investigate New Emerging Organic Contaminants Provide more Robust Data of Nitrogenous and Phosphorus Compound Deposition 3.6 Further Study the Impacts of the Aerosol Direct and Indirect Radiative Forcing Include the Impact of Longwave Direct Radiative Forcing in Regional Climate Modelling Study the Impact of Aerosol Direct Radiative Forcing Using Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean Models Study the Impact of Absorbing Aerosols Study the Impact of Aerosol Radiative Impacts on Photovoltaic Production Study the Impact on Marine Productivity of Surface Solar Irradiance Modification Due to Aerosol Dimming Design New Field Campaigns Focused on the Characterization of Aerosol and Clouds in Different Air Masses by Combining in Situ and Remote Sensing Observations for a Better Assessment of the Regional Aerosol Indirect Radiative Forcing 3.7 Further Assess Atmospheric Pollution Impacts in this Sensitive Region Better Understand the Relationships between Aerosols Properties and their Impacts Integrative Approaches to Take up the Health Challenge in a Changing Climate Encourage Collaboration between Experimental Scientists and Modellers from the Atmosphere and Marine Biogeochemistry Study the Impact of Various Stress Factor and their Combination on Terrestrial Vegetation References Appendix Maps of ChArMEx and Related Observations in the Mediterranean References Index