Origins of Cattle Traction and the Making of Early Civilisations in North China

Description

This book is the first to apply systematic palaeopathological, archaeological and historical investigations (using bones as a focus as well as other supporting lines of information) to Chinese osteological materials in order to answer the question about the origins of cattle labour. Structurally, this monograph flows from an introduction and review of previous scholarship and questions, through employed theory and developed methods, to analyses of archaeological materials, and finally finishes by overall discussion and closing remarks. Topics covered in this monograph include the significance of the study of cattle traction in North China, understanding and research into cattle traction within history, art and archaeology, and identifying traction in cattle bones. The author also uses the Pathological Index-refined (PIr) and morphometrics to test the reliability of both methods in identifying traction in cattle bones. The author applies both methods to archaeological sites in the Yellow River region. This book is of interest to researchers studying the Late Bronze Age and zooarchaeology. Preface Contents Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Cattle and Traction 1.1.1 Cattle 1.1.2 Traction 1.1.3 The Wider Context of Cattle Traction 1.1.3.1 Cattle Domestication 1.1.3.2 Secondary Products Revolution 1.2 Research History of Cattle Traction 1.2.1 The West 1.2.1.1 The Plough 1.2.1.2 The Cart 1.2.1.3 Zooarchaeological Investigation 1.2.2 China: A Brief Review 1.3 Project Design: Materials, Regions and Periods 1.3.1 The Role of Cattle Bones 1.3.2 Study Regions and Periods 1.4 Outline of the Book References Chapter 2: Cattle Traction in China: What We Know 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Framework of Chinese Archaeological Cultures 2.3 Known Scholarship for Chinese Cattle Traction 2.3.1 Historical Textual Documents 2.3.1.1 Farming 2.3.1.1.1 Lei 耒 and Si 耜 2.3.1.1.2 Debate of the Timing of Cattle Ploughing 2.3.1.1.3 Development of Cattle Ploughing 2.3.1.2 Transport 2.3.1.2.1 Sledge 2.3.1.2.2 Cart in the Pre-Han 2.3.1.2.3 Cart from the Han 2.3.1.3 Other Harness and Management 2.3.2 Oracle Bone and Bronze Inscriptions 2.3.2.1 Farming 2.3.2.1.1 Lei and Si 2.3.2.1.2 Cattle and Plough 2.3.2.2 Transport 2.3.2.3 Other Harness and Management 2.3.3 Wall Pictures and Historical Paintings 2.3.3.1 Farming 2.3.3.2 Transport 2.3.3.3 Other Harness and Management 2.3.4 Excavated Artefacts and Traces 2.3.4.1 Farming 2.3.4.1.1 Lei and Si 2.3.4.1.2 Plough 2.3.4.2 Transport 2.3.4.2.1 Sledge 2.3.4.2.2 Cart 2.3.4.3 Other Harness and Management 2.4 Discussion 2.5 Conclusions 2.6 Summary References Chapter 3: Identifying Traction in Cattle Bones 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Bone Biology and Mechanics 3.2.1 Functions of Bone 3.2.2 Bone Elements 3.2.3 Bone Types 3.2.4 Development of Bone 3.2.5 Biomechanics of Bone 3.2.6 Wolff’s Law and the Basic Multicellular Unit (BMU) 3.2.7 Special Properties of Bone 3.2.8 Fatigue Failure and Stress Fractures in Bone 3.2.9 Human as a Case: Bone Remodelling and Physical Strain 3.3 Identifying Traction in Cattle Bones 3.3.1 Cattle Bone Remodelling Under Traction 3.3.2 Cattle Bone Deformations and Pathologies Under Traction 3.3.3 Skeletal Parts Under Traction 3.4 Summary References Chapter 4: Project Methods: Analyses of Controlled Samples for Cattle Traction Interpretation 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Methods of Pathological Index (PI), Pathological Index-Refined (PIr), and Morphometrics 4.2.1 The PI and PIr 4.2.2 Morphometrics 4.2.3 Evaluations of the PI, PIr, and Morphometrics 4.2.3.1 The PI, and PIr Methods 4.2.3.2 The Morphometrics 4.3 Controlled Materials 4.3.1 Traction Cattle Samples 4.3.1.1 Draught Oxen of Romanian Grey and Brown Breed 4.3.1.2 Draught Oxen of Jersey Breed 4.3.2 Non-traction Cattle Samples: Modern and Palaeolithic Groups 4.3.2.1 Modern Meat/Dairy Cattle 4.3.2.2 Palaeolithic Wild Aurochs 4.3.3 Ethnographic Evaluations of European and Chinese Samples 4.3.3.1 Loading 4.3.3.2 Form of Harnessing 4.3.3.3 Terrain 4.3.3.4 Shoeing 4.3.3.5 Annual Number of Workdays 4.3.3.6 Speed 4.3.3.7 Team Size 4.3.3.8 Discussion 4.4 Results for the PI 4.4.1 Non-traction Models: Modern Chinese and Romanian Meat Cattle 4.4.1.1 Phalanges 4.4.1.2 Metapodials 4.4.2 Discussion 4.4.3 Non-traction Models: Modern Meat Cattle and Palaeolithic Aurochs 4.4.3.1 Phalanges 4.4.3.2 Metapodials 4.4.4 Discussion 4.4.5 Comparative Models of Traction and Non-traction Cattle 4.4.5.1 Phalanges 4.4.5.2 Metapodials 4.4.6 Discussion 4.5 Results for the PIr 4.5.1 Non-traction Models: Modern Chinese and Romanian Meat Cattle 4.5.1.1 Phalanges 4.5.1.2 Metapodials 4.5.2 Discussion 4.5.3 Non-traction Models: Modern Meat Cattle and Palaeolithic Aurochs 4.5.3.1 Phalanges 4.5.3.2 Metapodials 4.5.4 Discussion 4.5.5 Comparative Models of Traction and Non-traction Cattle 4.5.5.1 Phalanges 4.5.5.2 Metapodials 4.5.6 Discussion 4.6 Results for the Morphometrics 4.6.1 Scatterplots for Cattle Group Separation 4.6.2 Discussion 4.7 Overall Discussion 4.8 Summary References Chapter 5: Application of the PIr Method to Chinese Archaeological Samples for Cattle Traction 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Archaeological Sites for the PIr Method 5.2.1 Erlitou Site 5.2.2 Daxinzhuang Site 5.2.3 Dinggong Site 5.3 The PIr Models of Chinese Late Neolithic 5.3.1 Cattle Bone Samples 5.3.2 Results 5.3.2.1 Phalanges 5.3.2.2 Metapodials 5.3.2.3 Discussion 5.3.3 Discussion: Chinese Late Neolithic 5.4 The PIr Models of Chinese Bronze Age 5.4.1 Cattle Bone Samples 5.4.1.1 The Erlitou Period 5.4.1.2 The Early Shang Dynasty 5.4.1.3 The Late Shang Dynasty 5.4.2 Results 5.4.2.1 The Erlitou Period 5.4.2.1.1 Phalanges 5.4.2.1.2 Metapodials 5.4.2.1.3 Discussion 5.4.2.2 The Early Shang Dynasty 5.4.2.2.1 Phalanges 5.4.2.2.2 Metapodials 5.4.2.2.3 Discussion 5.4.2.3 The Late Shang Dynasty 5.4.2.3.1 Phalanges 5.4.2.3.2 Metapodials 5.4.2.3.3 Discussion 5.4.3 Discussion: Chinese Bronze Age 5.5 Overall Discussion 5.6 Summary References Chapter 6: Application of the Morphometric Method to Chinese Archaeological Samples for Cattle Traction 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Archaeological Sites for the Morphometrics 6.2.1 Yanshishangcheng Site 6.2.2 Zhougongmiao Site 6.2.3 Zaoshugounao Site 6.2.4 Lijiayao Site 6.2.5 Guanzhuang Site 6.2.6 Donglongshan Site 6.2.7 Anban Site 6.3 The Morphometric Models of Chinese Late Neolithic 6.3.1 Cattle Bone Samples and Results 6.3.2 Discussion: Chinese Late Neolithic 6.4 The Morphometric Models of Chinese Bronze Age 6.4.1 Cattle Bone Samples 6.4.2 Cattle Withers Height Investigation 6.4.3 Results 6.4.3.1 The Erlitou Period 6.4.3.2 The Early Shang Dynasty 6.4.3.3 The Late Shang Dynasty 6.4.3.4 The Western Zhou Dynasty 6.4.4 Discussion: Chinese Bronze Age 6.5 Overall Discussion 6.6 Summary References Chapter 7: Cattle Traction in the Making of Early Civilisations in North China 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Summary of the Book 7.3 Combined PIr and Morphometric Methods for Cattle Traction 7.3.1 Chinese Late Neolithic 7.3.2 Chinese Bronze Age 7.4 Cattle Traction in Economic-Social Contexts 7.4.1 Early Cattle Traction Within North China 7.4.2 Early Cattle Traction Beyond North China 7.5 Contributions and Limitations of the Book 7.5.1 Contributions 7.5.2 Limitations 7.6 Directions for Future Research References Appendices Appendix A: Detailed Information for Modern Traction Cattle Appendix B: Detailed Information for Modern Meat/Dairy Cattle Appendix C: Detailed Information for Palaeolithic Wild Aurochs Appendix D: Measurements of the Controlled Samples Appendix E: Photographs of Selected Archaeological Samples Index