Theoretical Sociology: 1830 to the Present

Description

Written by award-winning scholar Jonathan Turner, Theoretical Sociology: 1830 to the Present covers new and emerging aspects of sociological theory and examines the significant contributions of both modern and founding theorists. Nine sections present detailed analyses of key theories and paradigms, including functionalism, evolutionary theory, conflict theory, critical theory, exchange theory, interactionist theory, and structuralism. Despite the in-depth discussions of theorists and their contributions to the field, the text is concise and focused, a perfect resource for readers seeking to develop a deeper understanding of contemporary and classical sociological theory. Cover Page......Page 1 Title Page......Page 5 Copyright......Page 6 Brief Contents......Page 8 Detailed Contents......Page 9 Preface......Page 28 The Enlightenment and New Ways of Thinking......Page 31 The Intellectual Revolution......Page 32 The Political and Economic Revolutions......Page 35 Science as a Belief System......Page 37 Principles and Propositions......Page 42 Analytical Models......Page 43 Conclusion......Page 45 PART I: THE CLASSICAL PERIOD, 1830–1935......Page 47 Chapter 2: Auguste Comte and the Emergence of Sociology......Page 48 Comte's Early Essays......Page 49 Comte's View of Sociological Theory......Page 51 Experimentation......Page 54 Comte's Organization of Sociology......Page 55 Social Statics......Page 56 Social Dynamics......Page 58 Comte's Advocacy of Sociology......Page 60 Conclusions......Page 62 Chapter 3: Herbert Spencer......Page 65 Spencer's Moral Philosophy: Social Statics and The Principles of Ethics......Page 66 Spencer's First Principles......Page 68 The Methodological Problems Confronting Sociology......Page 70 The Theoretical Argument......Page 72 A Note on Spencer's Descriptive Sociology......Page 74 Spencer's The Principles of Sociology......Page 77 The Superorganic and the Organismic Analogy......Page 78 System Growth, Differentiation, and Integration......Page 79 Geopolitical Dynamics......Page 82 Stages of Societal Evolution......Page 83 Sequences of Differentiation......Page 86 System Dialectics and Phases......Page 88 Classifying Social Systems......Page 91 The Analysis of Societal Institutions......Page 94 Domestic Institutions and Kinship......Page 96 Ceremonial Institutions......Page 97 Political Institutions......Page 98 Religious Institutions......Page 99 Economic Institutions......Page 100 Spencer's Analytical Models of Societal Structures......Page 101 Spencer's Abstract Theoretical Principles......Page 107 Conclusions......Page 112 The German Ideology......Page 117 The Nature of Social Theory......Page 118 The Characteristics of All Societies......Page 119 Marx's Theoretical Methodology......Page 122 The Communist Manifesto......Page 124 Bourgeoisie and Proletarians......Page 125 Proletarians and Communists......Page 129 Reactionary Socialism......Page 131 Communist and Other Opposition Parties......Page 132 Marx's View of Capitalism in Historical Context......Page 133 Marx's Model of Stratification and Class Conflict......Page 134 Capital......Page 138 The Labor Theory of Value......Page 139 Surplus Value......Page 141 The Demise of Capitalism......Page 143 Capitalism in Historical Context......Page 145 Marx's Theoretical Legacy......Page 146 The General Model of History and Evolution......Page 147 The Model of Conflict......Page 151 Principles of Social Organization......Page 154 Principles of Inequality and Change in Social Systems......Page 155 Correcting Marx's Theory......Page 160 Conclusions......Page 161 Weber's Methodology of the Social Sciences......Page 169 Value-Free Sociology......Page 170 The Connection Between Values and Science......Page 171 General Ideal Types......Page 172 Weber's Image of Social Organization......Page 174 Charismatic Domination......Page 179 Traditional Domination......Page 180 Rational-Legal Domination......Page 181 Class......Page 183 Status Groups......Page 187 Weber's Model of Social Change......Page 189 Weber's Model of Stratification and Geopolitics......Page 190 Weber on Capitalism and Rationalization......Page 192 Weber's Study of Religion......Page 194 The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism......Page 195 Weber's Comparative Studies of Religion and Capitalism......Page 203 Weber's Outline of the Social System......Page 205 Weber's Model of Rationalization......Page 207 Weber's Model of Culture and Rationalization......Page 210 Weber's Model of Markets, Money, Power, and Law......Page 212 Weber's Model of Stratification and Conflict......Page 213 Weber's Model of Geopolitics......Page 216 Weber's Theoretical Principles......Page 217 Principles on the Process of Rationalization......Page 218 Principles on De-Legitimation and Conflict......Page 220 Principles on De-Legitimation and Geopolitics......Page 221 Conclusions......Page 222 Simmel's Methodological Approach to the Study of Society......Page 227 What Is Society?......Page 228 How Should Sociology Study Society?......Page 229 What Are the Problem Areas of Sociology?......Page 230 Pure, or Formal, Sociology......Page 231 Philosophical Sociology......Page 232 The Web of Group Affiliations as a Social Form......Page 233 Structural Changes Accompanying Social Differentiation......Page 234 The Consequences of Differentiation......Page 235 Conflict......Page 237 Conflict as a Social Form......Page 238 Conflict as a Threat to the Group......Page 239 Conflict Among Recognized and Accepted Opponents......Page 240 Conflict and Centralization of Power......Page 241 Conflict, Coalitions, and Group Formation......Page 242 Exchange as a Social Form......Page 244 Simmel's Assumptions about Human Nature......Page 245 Money in Social Exchange......Page 247 Money and Its Consequences for Social Relations......Page 248 Money and the Social Whole......Page 249 Money and the Individual......Page 252 Simmel's Theoretical Legacy......Page 253 Simmel's Model of Social Organization......Page 254 Simmel's Model of Differentiation and Group Affiliations......Page 257 Simmel's Model of Money, Markets, and Differentiation......Page 259 Simmel's Model of Social Differentiation, Conflict, and Societal Integration......Page 261 Simmel's Analysis of the Process of Differentiation......Page 264 Simmel on Conflict......Page 266 Conclusions......Page 268 Social Solidarity......Page 274 The Collective Conscience......Page 275 Mechanical and Organic Solidarity......Page 276 Social Change......Page 279 Pathology and Abnormal Forms......Page 281 The Anomic Division of Labor......Page 282 Inequality and the Forced Division of Labor......Page 284 Lack of Coordination......Page 285 What Is a Social Fact?......Page 286 Rules for the Observation of Social Facts......Page 287 Rules for the Classification of Social Types......Page 288 Rules for Establishing Sociological Proofs......Page 289 Suicide......Page 290 Egoistic Suicide......Page 291 Anomic Suicide......Page 292 Suicide and Deviance......Page 293 Suicide and the Social Organization of Organic Societies......Page 294 The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life......Page 295 An Overview of Durkheim's Argument......Page 296 Practical Concerns......Page 299 Theoretical Concerns......Page 300 Social Psychological Concerns......Page 301 What Is Morality?......Page 303 Voluntary Constraint......Page 304 Durkheim's Theoretical Legacy......Page 306 Durkheim's Underlying Causal Model......Page 307 Principles of Social Differentiation......Page 312 Principles of System Integration......Page 314 Principles of Deviance......Page 317 Principles of System Malintegration......Page 318 Conclusions......Page 320 Mead's Broader Philosophy......Page 327 Mead's View of the “Life Process”......Page 328 Mead's Social Behaviorism......Page 329 Gestures and Mind......Page 331 Significant Symbols and Mind......Page 333 Role-taking and Mind......Page 334 The Genesis of Mind......Page 335 The Social Nature of Self......Page 336 The Structure of Self......Page 337 Phases of the Self......Page 338 The Genesis of Self......Page 339 The Behavioral Basis of Society......Page 343 The Process of Society......Page 346 The Morphology of Society......Page 348 The Philosophy of the Act......Page 350 Impulse......Page 351 Perception......Page 352 Manipulation......Page 353 Consummation......Page 354 Mead's Theoretical Legacy......Page 356 Mead's Causal Model of Social Processes......Page 358 Principles of Animal Action......Page 360 Principles of Animal Interaction......Page 361 Principles of Human Action, Interaction, and Organization......Page 362 Conclusions......Page 369 Chapter 9: The Classical Roots of Contemporary Theorizing......Page 374 1. Functional Theorizing......Page 376 Stage Theories......Page 378 Biological Theories......Page 380 3. General Systems Theorizing......Page 382 4. Ecological Theorizing......Page 385 5. Conflict Theorizing......Page 388 Neo-Marxist Analytical Theories......Page 390 Neo-Weberian Analytical Theories......Page 391 Analytical Synthetic Conflict Theories......Page 392 World-Systems Theorizing......Page 393 Analytical Function Conflict Theory......Page 394 6. Interactionist Theorizing......Page 395 Symbolic Interactionism......Page 396 Role Theories......Page 397 Status Theories......Page 398 Dramaturgical Theories......Page 400 Theories of Emotions......Page 401 Phenomenological Interactionism......Page 403 Ethnomethodology......Page 404 7. Exchange Theorizing......Page 405 8. Structuralist Theories......Page 409 Structuralism......Page 411 Structuration Theory......Page 412 9. Cultural Theorizing......Page 413 10. Critical Theorizing......Page 416 American-Style Critical Theory......Page 418 Postmodern Theorizing......Page 419 Conclusions......Page 420 PART II: THE MODERN ERA OF THEORIZING......Page 428 How Functionalism Survived......Page 429 The Functionalism of A. R. Radcliffe-Brown......Page 430 The Functionalism of Bronislaw Malinowski......Page 432 The Structure of Social Action......Page 434 The Social System......Page 437 The Transition to Functional Requisites......Page 442 The Informational Hierarchy of Control......Page 443 Generalized Media of Exchange......Page 445 The Analysis of Social Change......Page 446 The Human Condition......Page 448 System and Environment......Page 450 Dimensions of the Environment......Page 451 Organizational Systems......Page 452 System Differentiation, Integration, and Conflict......Page 453 Communication and Codes......Page 456 Reflexivity and Self-Thematization......Page 457 The Underlying Mechanisms of Evolution......Page 458 Evolution and Social Differentiation......Page 460 Politics as a Social System......Page 463 The Autonomy of the Legal System......Page 466 The Economy as a Social System......Page 467 Conclusions......Page 470 Early Systems Approaches......Page 474 General Systems Theory......Page 475 Energy, Matter, and Information......Page 476 Open and Closed Systems......Page 477 Cybernetic Systems......Page 478 System Levels......Page 479 Living Systems: James G. Miller's Analysis......Page 480 Conclusions......Page 486 Theorizing on Urban Ecology......Page 491 Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman's Ecological Theory......Page 496 J. Miller McPherson's Ecological Theory......Page 499 Production, Transportation, and Communication......Page 503 The Environment......Page 504 Functions and Key Functions......Page 505 Equilibrium and Change......Page 507 Growth and Evolution......Page 509 Conclusions......Page 515 Chapter 13: Evolutionary Theorizing......Page 519 The Early Theory......Page 520 Gerhard Lenski, Patrick Nolan, and Jean Lenski's Evolutionary Theory......Page 524 The Four Action Systems......Page 528 Stages of Societal Evolution......Page 529 Problems in Theoretical Sociology......Page 534 Saving the Useful Part of Functionalism......Page 535 Selection as a Driving Force of Evolution......Page 536 Building a Simple Analytical Scheme......Page 538 Generalized Symbolic Media and Cultural Integration......Page 540 Symbolic Media and Stratification......Page 542 Evolution, Differentiation, and Structural Integration......Page 543 The Utility of Stage Models of Societal Evolution......Page 546 Darwinian-Inspired Evolutionary Theories......Page 547 Pierre van den Berghe's Approach......Page 548 Explanations of Social Phenomena with Sociobiology......Page 552 Joseph Lopreato's Approach......Page 554 Evolutionary Psychology......Page 559 Richard Machalek's Approach......Page 562 Alexandra Maryanski's Approach......Page 567 Making Evolutionary Theorizing More Darwinian, Biological......Page 571 Conclusions......Page 572 Ralf Dahrendorf's Dialectical Conflict Theory......Page 578 Making Marx's Theory More Abstract......Page 579 Developing Explanatory Propositions......Page 580 Lewis Coser's Functional Conflict Theory......Page 582 The Causes of Conflict......Page 583 The Violence of Conflict......Page 584 The Duration of Conflict......Page 585 The Functions of Conflict......Page 586 Later Analytical Theorizing: Randall Collins......Page 588 The Early Conceptualization of Interaction Rituals......Page 589 Talk and Ritual......Page 591 Deference and Demeanor......Page 593 Class Cultures......Page 595 Organizational Processes......Page 596 The State and the Economy......Page 598 Geopolitics......Page 599 Ritual and Emotions......Page 601 The Power of Confrontational Tension and Fear......Page 604 The Escalation and De-escalation of Conflict......Page 605 Neo-Marxian Class Analysis: Erik Olin Wright......Page 608 Social Class, Emancipation, and History......Page 609 Micro-Level Versus Macro-Level Class Analysis......Page 610 Material Interests......Page 611 Lived Experiences......Page 612 The Problem of the Middle Classes......Page 613 Contradictory Class Locations......Page 614 Multiple Exploitation......Page 615 The Emerging Scheme......Page 616 Sustaining the Emancipatory Dream: Envisioning Real Utopias......Page 618 The Overall Model......Page 619 Alternative Trajectories of Transformation......Page 621 Assessing Wright's Neo-Marxist Approach......Page 623 World Empires and World Economy......Page 624 Core, Periphery, and Semi-periphery......Page 625 The Dynamics of the World Economy......Page 627 Other Cyclical Dynamics in the World Economy......Page 628 The End of Capitalism......Page 629 Conclusion......Page 630 George C. Homans's Behavioristic Approach......Page 636 Borrowing from B. F. Skinner......Page 637 The Basic Exchange Principles......Page 638 From Behavior to Macrostructure......Page 642 Peter M. Blau's Dialectical Theory of Exchange......Page 644 The Basic Exchange Principles......Page 645 Elementary Systems of Exchange......Page 646 Strains Toward Integration......Page 648 Macrostructural Exchange Systems......Page 651 Richard M. Emerson's Power Dependence Theory of Exchange......Page 657 The Core Ideas......Page 658 Social Structure, Networks, and Exchange......Page 659 James S. Coleman's Early Advocacy and Mature Theory......Page 667 Transferring Rights to Act......Page 668 The Demand for Norms and Sanctions......Page 669 Exchange Theorizing Today in Sociology......Page 671 The Basic Problem of Order in Rational Choice Theorizing......Page 672 The Basis of Social Control......Page 674 Types of Groups......Page 675 The Determinants of Group Solidarity......Page 677 Patterns of Control in Groups......Page 678 Macrostructural Implications......Page 680 Commitment in Exchange Networks......Page 682 Refining the Theory of Emotions......Page 686 A General Theory of Commitments to Macrostructures......Page 691 Conclusions......Page 694 Sheldon Stryker's Identity Theory......Page 698 Identities and the Salience Hierarchy......Page 699 The Key Propositions......Page 700 Identity and Emotions......Page 702 Role Identity and Role Support......Page 703 The Mechanisms for Maintaining Role Support......Page 704 The Hierarchy of Prominence......Page 705 The Underlying Exchange Dynamic......Page 706 Peter J. Burke's Identity Control Theory......Page 707 Identity as a Cybernetic Control System......Page 708 Multiple Identities......Page 710 Identity Verification......Page 711 Failure to Verify Identity......Page 712 Psychoanalytically Oriented Symbolic Interactionist Theories: Thomas Scheff and Jonathan Turner......Page 714 Thomas Scheff's Theory of Pride and Shame......Page 715 Jonathan Turner's Theory of Emotions and Transactional Needs......Page 719 Conclusions......Page 725 Robert Park's Role Theory......Page 729 Ralph Linton on Status and Roles......Page 730 Role Theorizing......Page 731 The Process of Role-making......Page 732 The Tentative Nature of Interaction......Page 733 Self-Conceptions and Roles......Page 734 Building a Role Theory......Page 735 Generating Explanatory Laws......Page 739 Expanding the Notions of Role-taking and Role-making......Page 741 Activating Microdynamic Forces in Interaction......Page 742 Status Theorizing......Page 745 The Phenomenology of Status......Page 746 Clarity of Status in Situations......Page 747 Expectation States and Status......Page 748 The Core Ideas of Expectation States Theorizing......Page 749 Application of Core Ideas in Expectation States Theorizing......Page 750 Stability and Change in Status Beliefs......Page 761 Expectation States Theories of Affect......Page 763 Conclusions......Page 772 The Interaction Order......Page 778 The Dramaturgical Metaphor......Page 779 The Presentation of Self......Page 780 Encounters......Page 784 Ritual......Page 786 Roles......Page 788 Self......Page 789 Talk......Page 790 Disruption and Repair in Focused Interaction......Page 793 Unfocused Encounters......Page 794 Frames and the Organization of Experience......Page 797 Primary Frames......Page 798 Fabrications......Page 799 The Complexity of Experience......Page 800 Extensions of Goffmanian Dramaturgy......Page 801 Arlie Hochschild on Emotional Labor......Page 802 Morris Rosenberg on Reflexivity and Dramatic Presentations......Page 804 Emotional Displays......Page 805 The Sources of Discrepancy......Page 806 Candace Clark's Theory on the Dramaturgy and Strategy of Sympathy......Page 807 Strategic Dimensions of Sympathy Giving......Page 808 Societal Changes and the Extension of Sympathy......Page 809 Sympathy Etiquette......Page 811 Randall Collins on Interaction Rituals......Page 812 Conclusions......Page 814 Chapter 19: Phenomenological and Ethnomethodological Theorizing......Page 820 Edmund Husserl's Project......Page 821 Alfred Schutz's Phenomenological Interactionism......Page 823 Contemporary Ethnomethodological Theorizing......Page 826 The Indexicality of Meaning......Page 827 Harold Garfinkel's Early Studies......Page 828 Aaron V. Cicourel's Critique......Page 830 Using the Et Cetera Principle......Page 831 Harvey Sacks's Analysis of Conversational Turn Taking......Page 832 Zimmerman, Pollner, and Wieder's Situational Approach......Page 833 Emanuel Schegloff's Conversation Analysis......Page 834 Confirming Allusions......Page 835 Repair After Next Turn......Page 836 Overlaps in Conversations......Page 837 Conclusions......Page 838 Chapter 20: Structural and Structuralist Theorizing......Page 841 The French Structural Tradition: Claude Lévi-Strauss......Page 842 The British Structuralist Tradition: Anthony Giddens's Structuration Theory......Page 848 Structuration......Page 849 Reconceptualizing Structure and Social System......Page 850 Reconceptualizing Institutions......Page 853 Agents, Agency, and Action......Page 856 Routinization and Regionalization of Interactions......Page 859 S. F. Nadel and Network Analysis......Page 862 Jacob Moreno and Sociometric Techniques......Page 863 Studies of Communications in Groups......Page 865 Early Gestalt and Balance Approaches: Heider, Newcomb, Cartwright, and Harary......Page 867 Points and Nodes......Page 870 Links, Ties, and Connections......Page 871 Patterns and Configurations of Ties......Page 872 Reciprocity of Ties......Page 873 Density of Ties......Page 874 Bridges......Page 875 Centrality......Page 876 Equivalence......Page 877 Can Network Analysis Make Conceptions of Structure More Precise?......Page 878 Conclusions......Page 880 Chapter 21: Cultural Theorizing......Page 886 Cultural Structure, Ritual, and Institutional Context......Page 887 The Structure of Moral Codes......Page 888 Institutional Context......Page 890 The Dynamics of the Moral Order......Page 891 Criticisms of Existing Theories......Page 894 The Critique of Interactionism and Phenomenology......Page 895 The Critique of Utilitarianism......Page 896 Classes and Capital......Page 898 Class Cultures and Habitus......Page 902 Cultural Pragmatics: Jeffrey C. Alexander......Page 904 History of Ritualized Performances......Page 905 Challenges and Strategies Employed in Performances......Page 907 Why Pragmatics?......Page 909 Conclusions......Page 910 The Postmodern Critique of Science......Page 915 Jean-François Lyotard......Page 917 Richard Rorty......Page 918 Richard Harvey Brown's “Society as Text”......Page 919 Mark Gottdiener's and Steven Seidman's Critique......Page 920 Economic Postmodernism......Page 921 Fredric Jameson......Page 922 David Harvey......Page 925 Scott Lash and John Urry......Page 927 Jean Baudrillard......Page 930 Kenneth Gergen......Page 932 Norman Denzin and Douglas Kellner......Page 933 Mark Gottdiener......Page 934 Zygmunt Bauman......Page 935 Formalizing the Postmodernist Argument......Page 937 Conclusions......Page 942 Strains of Critical Theorizing in Europe......Page 947 The Critical Thrust of Karl Marx's Analysis of Capitalism......Page 948 Simmel's Defense of Modernity and Implicit Attack on Marx......Page 951 The Frankfurt School and the Cultural Turn......Page 953 György Lukács......Page 955 Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno......Page 956 Gramsci's Theory of Ideological Hegemony......Page 957 Althusser's Structuralism......Page 958 The Transformation of Marx's Project......Page 959 The Modern Frankfurt School: Jürgen Habermas......Page 960 Habermas's Conception of “The Public Sphere”......Page 961 The Critique of Science......Page 962 Legitimation Crisis in Societies......Page 964 Early Analysis of Speech and Interaction......Page 966 Habermas's Reconceptualization of Evolution......Page 968 The Theory of Communicative Action......Page 970 The Overall Project......Page 971 The Reconceptualization of Action and Rationality......Page 972 The Lifeworld and System Processes of Society......Page 974 Evolutionary Dynamics and Societal Crises......Page 975 Conclusions: The Goal of Critical Theory......Page 976 Chapter 24: American-Style Critical Theorizing......Page 982 The Feminist Critique of Sociological Theory: Gender, Politics, and Patriarchy......Page 983 Early Challenges to Social Science......Page 984 A Sociology for Women: Feminist Methodologies, Epistemologies, and Standpoint Theories......Page 987 Critiquing the Critique: Challenges to Critical Feminist Theory......Page 995 Critical Race Theory......Page 997 Critical Theories of Race and Racism......Page 1000 Conclusions......Page 1001 PART III: THE STATE OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY......Page 1008 Chapter 25: Elements of Scientific Theorizing in Sociology......Page 1009 Concepts: The Basic Building Blocks of Theory......Page 1010 Theoretical Statements and Formats......Page 1012 Meta-theoretical Schemes......Page 1014 Analytical Schemes......Page 1015 Discursive Schemes......Page 1017 Propositional Schemes......Page 1018 Axiomatic Formats......Page 1019 Formal Formats......Page 1020 Empirical Formats......Page 1021 Modeling Schemes......Page 1024 Conclusions: Assessing Diverse Theoretical Approaches......Page 1027 Chapter 26: Overcoming Roadblocks to Cumulative Explanatory Theory in Sociology......Page 1037 Value Neutrality: Is This Possible? Even Desirable?......Page 1038 Why Some Proclaim That Sociology Cannot Be a Natural Science......Page 1040 Hermeneutical Dualisms......Page 1041 Scientific Politics......Page 1043 Critical Discourse......Page 1044 Conclusions: Is a Natural Science of Society Possible?......Page 1045 Index......Page 1048 About the Author......Page 1119