Transformations : women, gender and psychology

Description

"As I wrote this edition of Transformations during the latter half of 2016 and the first half of 2017, the larger social and political context was very much on my mind. While I summarized the latest research on such topics as women's leadership, backlash against competent women, sexual harassment, transgender identity, reproductive justice, and feminist activism, a presidential election campaign was being held. For the first time in American history, it pitted a male and a female candidate from the two major political parties against each other, and it was remarkably bitter and divisive. During this time period, sexual assault and harassment were constantly in the news: Donald Trump was caught on tape bragging about grabbing women by the genitals, and retaliated with accusations about former president Bill Clinton; Fox News head Roger Ailes was forced to resign after a longtime culture of harassment at the network was revealed; and a pending sexual assault lawsuit against Bill Cosby repeatedly made headlines. A "bathroom bill" discriminating against trans people was on, off, and on again. State legislatures and the Trump administration moved to restrict women's reproductive rights in the U.S. and around the world. And this was just the United States. Globally, girls and women were being kidnapped and held as sex slaves by terrorist groups. Nearly two out of five female murder victims were killed by partners or former partners. Two-thirds of the world's illiterate people were female; and sex trafficking continued unabated. As I joined the millions of people who marched in global protest on January 21, 2017, I thought: Whatever one's stance on political or social issues, gender is still a very important category"--  Read more... Title Page......Page 2 Copyright......Page 3 Dedication......Page 4 About the Authors......Page 5 Contents......Page 6 Preface......Page 14 Acknowledgments......Page 23 Part 1 Introduction......Page 24 Chapter 1 Paving the Way......Page 27 Beginnings......Page 28 How Did the Psychology of Women Get Started?......Page 29 Psychology and the Women’s Movement......Page 30 Voices from the Margins: A History......Page 31 Feminism Has Many Meanings......Page 32 Psychology’s Methods......Page 34 Toward Gender-Fair Research......Page 36 Feminist Values in Research......Page 38 About This Book......Page 40 A Personal Reflection......Page 41 Exploring Further......Page 42 Part 2 Gender in Social Context......Page 44 Chapter 2 Gender, Status, and Power......Page 47 Gender Shapes Societies and Cultures......Page 49 Justifying Gender Inequality......Page 50 Gender Shapes Social Interactions......Page 52 Constructing Gender through Female Bodies......Page 53 Gender as a Presentation of Self......Page 54 “Doing Gender”......Page 56 Constructing Gender in Interaction......Page 57 Justifying Inequality......Page 65 Sexist Attitudes......Page 67 Linking the Levels of Gender: A Summary......Page 68 Transforming Interpersonal Relations......Page 70 Transforming the Structures of Inequality......Page 71 Exploring Further......Page 72 Chapter 3 Images of Women......Page 73 Words Can Never Hurt Me?......Page 74 Language about Women and Men......Page 75 Representing Women and Men......Page 78 Face-ism......Page 81 Sexual Objectification......Page 83 Invisible Women......Page 89 The Content of Gender Stereotypes......Page 92 Sexuality Stereotypes......Page 94 The Intersectionality of Gender and Ethnic Stereotypes......Page 95 Are Stereotypes Accurate?......Page 97 Stereotypes Are Hard to Change......Page 98 Stereotypes, the Self, and Stereotype Threat......Page 99 How Not to Stereotype......Page 100 Challenging Objectification......Page 101 Exploring Further......Page 103 Chapter 4 The Meanings of Difference......Page 104 The Politics of Difference and Similarity......Page 105 Defining Difference and Similarity......Page 108 Measuring Differences......Page 109 Interpreting Results: Values and Ideology in Research......Page 111 Gendering Cognition: “Girls Can’t Do Math”......Page 112 What Factors Influence Math Performance?......Page 113 Social Implications of Gendered Cognition......Page 118 Gendering Emotion: “Boys Don’t Cry”......Page 120 Emotion Stereotypes......Page 121 Culture, Ethnicity, and Emotionality......Page 122 Emotionality and Social Interaction......Page 123 Social Implications of Gendered Emotionality......Page 125 The Individual Level: Thinking Critically about Differences and Similarities......Page 127 The Sociocultural Level: Creating Opportunities for Equality......Page 128 Exploring Further......Page 129 Part 3 Gender and Development......Page 131 Chapter 5 Sex, Gender, and Bodies......Page 134 Sexual Differentiation during Fetal Development......Page 136 Variations in Fetal Development: Intersexuality......Page 137 Intersexuality and Identity......Page 141 Transgender Identity......Page 145 Sex and Sexual Orientation......Page 147 Hormones and Sexual Orientation......Page 148 Constructing Two Sexes......Page 149 Rethinking Gender Dysphoria......Page 151 More Than Two Sexes......Page 152 Genderqueer......Page 154 Transforming Society: Equality for Gender Minorities......Page 156 Exploring Further......Page 157 Chapter 6 Gendered Identities: Childhood and Adolescence......Page 158 Social Learning Theory......Page 159 Cognitive Theories......Page 162 Gender in the Child’s Daily Life......Page 165 Parental Influences......Page 166 Peer Influences......Page 168 Gendered Environments......Page 170 Media Influences......Page 172 Intersectionality, and Gender Typing......Page 176 Children and Poverty......Page 177 Changing Bodies......Page 178 Gender Intensification......Page 180 Who Is This New Self?......Page 181 Peer Culture and Harassment......Page 182 Making a Difference......Page 183 Transforming Social Interactions: Enlarging the Options for Girls......Page 184 Exploring Further......Page 186 Part 4 Gendered Life Paths......Page 188 Chapter 7 Sex, Love, and Romance......Page 191 Contemporary Sexual Scripts......Page 193 Sexual Scripts Differ across Ethnic Groups and Cultures......Page 195 How Does Sexuality Emerge in the Teen Years?......Page 196 What Factors Influence the Decision to Have Sex?......Page 197 First Intercourse: Less Than Bliss?......Page 198 Women’s Experiences of Orgasm......Page 199 Evils of Masturbation or Joys of Self-Pleasure?......Page 200 Defining Sexual Orientation......Page 201 Developing a Lesbian or Bisexual Identity......Page 202 Intersections of Ethnic and Sexual Identity......Page 204 Hookup Culture?......Page 205 The Subtle Scripts of Sexual Initiative and Pleasure......Page 207 Sexual Scripts and Sexual Dysfunction......Page 208 Cultural Variations in the United States......Page 209 Disability and Sexuality......Page 210 Is Sex Talk Sexist?......Page 211 Studs and Sluts: Is There Still a Double Standard?......Page 212 Silencing Girls’ Sexuality......Page 213 Controlling Women’s Sexuality......Page 216 Making a Difference......Page 217 Safer and Better Sex......Page 218 Exploring Further......Page 219 Chapter 8 Commitments: Women and Close Relationships......Page 221 Marriage......Page 222 Who Marries and When?......Page 223 Who Marries Whom?......Page 224 Varieties of Marriage......Page 225 Power in Marriage......Page 227 Happily Ever After? Marital Satisfaction and Psychological Adjustment......Page 230 Lesbian and Heterosexual Couples Compared......Page 232 Characteristics of Lesbian Marriages and Relationships......Page 233 Power and Satisfaction in Lesbian Relationships......Page 234 Who Cohabits and Why?......Page 235 Does Living Together Affect Later Marriage?......Page 236 Ending the Commitment: Separation and Divorce......Page 237 What Are the Causes and Consequences of Divorce?......Page 238 Remarriage......Page 242 Marriage Equality for Lesbian and Gay Couples......Page 243 True Partnership: Equality in Heterosexual Marriage......Page 244 Exploring Further......Page 245 Chapter 9 Mothering......Page 247 Images of Mothers and Motherhood......Page 249 Why Do Women Choose to Have Children?......Page 250 Childless by Choice or Circumstance?......Page 251 Restricting Women’s Choices......Page 252 Technology and Choice......Page 255 The Transition to Motherhood......Page 256 Psychological Effects of Bodily Changes during Pregnancy......Page 257 Motherhood and Women’s Identity......Page 260 The Event of Childbirth......Page 261 Is Childbirth a Medical Crisis?......Page 262 Family-Centered Childbirth......Page 263 Depression Following Childbirth: Why?......Page 264 Experiences of Mothering......Page 265 Teen Mothers......Page 266 Single Mothers......Page 267 Black Mothers and the Matriarchal Myth......Page 268 LGBT Mothers......Page 269 Making a Difference......Page 270 Transforming Social Policy: Redefining Family Values......Page 271 Transforming Social Meanings: Redefining Parenthood......Page 272 Exploring Further......Page 274 Chapter 10 Work and Achievement......Page 276 If She Isn’t Paid, Is It Still Work?......Page 277 Relational Work: Keeping Everybody Happy......Page 279 Status Work: The Two-Person Career......Page 280 What Are the Costs and Benefits of Invisible Work?......Page 281 Occupational Segregation......Page 282 Women’s Work as “Only Natural”......Page 283 The Wage Gap......Page 284 Evaluating Women’s Performance......Page 287 Discrimination in Hiring and Promotion......Page 288 Social Reactions to Token Women......Page 289 The Importance of Mentoring......Page 291 Leadership: Do Women Do It Differently?......Page 295 Defining Sexual Harassment......Page 296 The Prevalence of Harassment......Page 297 The Consequences of Harassment......Page 298 Expectancies, Values, and Career Paths......Page 299 High-Achieving Women......Page 301 What Are the Benefits of the Balancing Act?......Page 303 Making A Difference: Women, Work, and Social Policy......Page 304 Exploring Further......Page 305 Chapter 11 The Second Half: Midlife and Aging......Page 307 Is There a Double Standard of Aging?......Page 309 Ageism......Page 310 Cross-Cultural Differences......Page 311 Self-Identity and Social Identity......Page 312 Invisibility......Page 313 The Effects of Age Stereotypes......Page 314 Physical Health in Middle and Later Life......Page 315 Menopause and Hormone Replacement Therapy......Page 317 The Medicalization of Menopause......Page 318 Constructing the Object of Desire......Page 319 Exercise and Fitness......Page 321 Sexuality in Middle and Later Life......Page 322 Becoming a Grandmother......Page 325 Caregiving: Its Costs and Rewards......Page 327 Loss of a Life Partner......Page 329 Women in Their Prime......Page 330 Retirement......Page 331 Transforming Society: Elder Activism......Page 332 Transforming Social Interaction: Taking Charge of the Second Half......Page 333 Exploring Further......Page 334 Part 5 Gender and Well-Being......Page 336 Chapter 12 Violence against Women......Page 339 The Gender System and Violence......Page 341 ‘Honor’-based Violence......Page 342 Sex Trafficking......Page 343 Gender Violence as Entertainment......Page 344 Pornography......Page 346 Violence and Social Media......Page 348 Child Sexual Abuse......Page 349 Dating Violence......Page 350 Stalking......Page 351 Sexual Coercion and Acquaintance Rape......Page 352 Violence in Long-Term Relationships......Page 354 How Can Relationship Violence Be Ended?......Page 358 Elder Abuse......Page 359 Widow Abuse......Page 360 Making a Difference......Page 361 A Multifaceted Approach to Interventions......Page 362 Women’s Rights Are Human Rights......Page 363 Exploring Further......Page 365 Chapter 13 Psychological Disorders, Therapy, and Women’s Well-Being......Page 366 Sexist Bias in Defining Disorders......Page 367 Women’s Behavior as Abnormal......Page 368 Blaming Women for Distress and Disorders......Page 369 The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)......Page 370 Gender-Linked Psychological Disorders......Page 371 Why Are There Gender-Related Differences in the Rates of Some Disorders?......Page 372 Which Disorders Are Diagnosed More Frequently in Women?......Page 373 Institutionalizing Women......Page 378 Medicating Women......Page 381 Traditional Psychotherapy......Page 384 Feminist Therapy......Page 385 Intersectionality and Feminist Therapy......Page 386 Evaluating Feminist Therapy......Page 389 Transforming Social Relations: Challenging the “Crazy Woman” Stereotype......Page 391 Exploring Further......Page 392 Chapter 14 Making a Difference: Toward a Better Future for Women......Page 393 Contemporary Feminism......Page 394 Images and Stereotypes of Feminists......Page 396 Attitudes toward Feminism......Page 397 The Changing Face of Psychology......Page 399 What Can One Student Do?......Page 400 Exploring Further......Page 401 References......Page 403 Name Index......Page 449 Subject Index......Page 472