Jacaranda Chemistry: VCE Units 1 & 2

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Chemistry - Textbooks Victorian Certificate of Education examination - Study guides. Half Title Page Title Page Copyright Contents About This Resource Acknowledgements Unit 1 How can the diversity of materials be explained? TOPIC 1 Elements 1.1 Overview 1.1.1 Introduction 1.1.2 What you will learn 1.2 Atomic structure 1.2.1 The structure of atoms 1.2.2 A matter of size 1.2.3 Responsible use of nanotechnology 1.3 Representing atoms 1.3.1 Atomic number (symbol Z) 1.3.2 Mass number (symbol A) 1.3.3 Isotopes 1.4 Electrons 1.4.1 Exciting electrons 1.4.2 Bohr’s energy levels electrons 1.4.3 Electron configuration 1.4.4 Erwin Schrödinger: the quantum-mechanical model of an atom 1.4.5 Electron configuration 1.4.6 Chromium and copper: atypical electron configurations 1.5 Review 1.5.1 Summary 1.5.2 Key terms 1.5.3 Practical work and investigations TOPIC 2 The periodic table 2.1 Overview 2.1.1 Introduction 2.1.2 What you will learn 2.2 Organisation of the periodic table 2.2.1 The modern periodic table 2.2.2 Periods and groups in the periodic table 2.2.3 Metals and non-metals in the periodic table 2.3 Patterns and trends in the periodic table 2.3.1 Periodic patterns and trends 2.3.2 Atomic radii 2.3.3 Electronegativity 2.3.4 First ionisation energy 2.3.5 Metallic/non-metallic characteristics 2.3.6 Reactivity of elements 2.3.7 Summary of trends in the periodic table 2.4 Review 2.4.1 Summary 2.4.2 Key terms TOPIC 3 Metals 3.1 Overview 3.1.1 Introduction 3.1.2 What you will learn 3.2 Properties of metals 3.2.1 The common properties of metal 3.2.2 Crystal nature of metallic bonding 3.2.3 The structure and properties of metallic crystals 3.2.4 Limitations of models 3.2.5 Properties of s-block metals 3.2.6 Properties of p-block metals 3.2.7 Properties of d-block metals 3.3 Reactivity of metals 3.3.1 Reactivity of metals and the periodic table 3.3.2 Relative reactivity of metals with water 3.3.3 Relative reactivity of metals with acids 3.3.4 Relative reactivity of metals with oxygen 3.3.5 Summary of the reactivity of metals 3.4 Extraction of metal from its ore 3.4.1 Reactivity and extraction method 3.4.2 The extraction of iron metal from its ore 3.4.3 Impacts of iron production on society, the economy and social issues 3.5 Modifying metals 3.5.1 Work-hardening metals 3.5.2 Modifying metals using heat 3.5.3 Coating metals 3.5.4 Alloys 3.6 Metallic nanomaterials 3.6.1 Properties of metallic nanomaterials 3.6.2 Uses of metallic nanomaterials 3.6.3 Comparison of nanomaterials and bulk materials 3.6.4 Different nanoforms of metals and their properties 3.7 Review 3.7.1 Summary 3.7.2 Key terms 3.7.3 Practical work and investigations TOPIC 4 Ionic compounds 4.1 Overview 4.1.1 Introduction 4.1.2 What you will learn 4.2 Structure and properties of ionic substances 4.2.1 Chemical bonds 4.2.2 From atoms to ions 4.2.3 Ionic bonding 4.2.4 Structure and properties of ionic substances 4.2.5 Connecting properties of ionic compounds to structure 4.2.6 Limitations of ionic models 4.3 Ionic nomenclature 4.3.1 Naming ionic compounds 4.3.2 Formulas of binary ionic compounds 4.3.3 Ions with a variable charge 4.3.4 Polyatomic ions 4.4 Crystal formation and uses of ionic compounds 4.4.1 Factors affecting crystal formation 4.4.2 Uses of common ionic compounds 4.5 Review 4.5.1 Summary 4.5.2 Key terms 4.5.3 Practical work and investigations TOPIC 5 Quantifying atoms and compounds 5.1 Overview 5.1.1 Introduction 5.1.2 What you will learn 5.2 Relative isotopic mass and the carbon-12 scale 5.2.1 Review of atomic number and mass number 5.2.2 Relative isotopic mass 5.2.3 Relative atomic mass 5.2.4 Mass spectrometry 5.3 The mole 5.3.1 The mole concept 5.3.2 Molar mass, M 5.3.3 Calculating molar mass, M, of covalent (molecular) and ioniccompounds 5.3.4 Calculating moles of atoms in a known mass 5.4 Determination of the empirical formula 5.4.1 Steps to determine the empirical formula 5.5 Review 5.5.1 Summary 5.5.2 Key terms 5.5.3 Practical investigations UNIT 1 | AREA OF STUDY 1 REVIEW: AREA OF STUDY 1 How can knowledge of elements explain the properties of matter? TOPIC 6 Materials from molecules 6.1 Overview 6.1.1 Introduction 6.1.2 What you will learn 6.2 Representing molecules 6.2.1 What is covalent bonding? 6.2.2 Electron dot diagrams for atoms and molecular elements 6.2.3 Structural formulas and valence structures 6.2.4 Electron dot diagrams for molecular compounds 6.2.5 Physical representations 6.2.6 Limitations of these representations 6.3 Predicting molecular shape 6.3.1 The valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory 6.3.2 Polar and non-polar molecules 6.4 Explaining the properties of molecular substances 6.4.1 Inter-molecular attractions 6.4.2 Properties of molecular substancesin relation to structure 6.5 The relative strengths of bond types inmolecular substances 6.5.1 Factors that determine bond strength 6.5.2 The effect of hydrogen bonding on the properties of water 6.6 Review 6.6.1 Summary 6.6.2 Key terms 6.6.3 Practical investigations TOPIC 7 Carbon lattices and carbon nanomaterials 7.1 Overview 7.1.1 Introduction 7.1.2 What you will learn 7.2 Covalent lattice bonding 7.2.1 Carbon 7.2.2 Covalent network lattices 7.2.3 Covalent layer lattices 7.2.4 Comparison of allotropes of carbon 7.3 Carbon nanomaterials 7.3.1 What are nanomaterials? 7.3.2 Fullerenes 7.3.3 Graphene 7.3.4 A summary of properties and uses of carbon nanomaterials 7.4 A review of bonding 7.4.1 The basis of bonding 7.4.2 Lattice structures 7.4.3 Identifying the bonding in different substances 7.5 Review 7.5.1 Summary 7.5.2 Key terms TOPIC 8 Organic compounds 8.1 Overview 8.1.1 Introduction 8.1.2 What you will learn 8.2 Grouping hydrocarbons into families 8.2.1 What is organic chemistry? 8.2.2 Introduction to hydrocarbons 8.2.3 Alkanes 8.2.4 Alkenes 8.2.5 Alkynes 8.2.6 Isomers 8.2.7 Naming hydrocarbons 8.2.8 Representing organic molecules 8.3 Functional groups 8.3.1 Functional groups 8.3.2 Alcohols 8.3.3 Carboxylic acids 8.3.4 Esters 8.4 The origin and use of crude oil 8.4.1 Formation 8.4.2 Refining 8.5 Determining the empirical and molecular formulasof organic compounds 8.5.1 Empirical formulas 8.5.2 Molecular formulas 8.5.3 Summary of formula types 8.6 Review 8.6.1 Summary 8.6.2 Key terms 8.6.3 Practical work and experiments TOPIC 9 Polymers 9.1 Overview 9.1.1 Introduction 9.1.2 What you will learn 9.2 Formation of polymers 9.2.1 Plastics and polymers 9.2.2 Addition polymers 9.3 Linear and cross-linked polymers 9.3.1 Thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers 9.3.2 Linear polymers 9.3.3 Cross-linked polymers 9.3.4 Summary of thermoplastics, elastomers and thermosets 9.3.5 Recycling polymers 9.4 Polymer selection 9.4.1 Features of linear polymers 9.4.2 Examples of properties related to uses 9.4.3 Advantages and disadvantages of using polymers 9.5 Review 9.5.1 Summary 9.5.2 Key terms 9.5.3 Practical investigations UNIT 1 | AREA OF S TUDY 2 REVIEW: AREA OF STUDY 2 How can the versatility ofnon-metals be explained? TOPIC 10 Research investigation 10.1 Overview 10.1.1 Introduction 10.1.2 What you will learn 10.2 What is a research investigation? 10.2.1 Why do we conduct research investigations? 10.2.2 Planning and presenting a research investigation 10.2.3 Choosing a topic and developing a question 10.2.4 Conducting your research 10.2.5 Record your findings 10.2.6 Analyse and interpret your information 10.2.7 Present a report of your research investigation 10.2.8 Acknowledge your information 10.3 Effective science communication 10.3.1 Characteristics of effective science communication 10.3.2 The influence of social, economic, environmental and ethical factors 10.4 The nature of evidence and information 10.4.1 Weak and strong evidence 10.4.2 Scientific and non-scientific ideas 10.4.3 Reliability and authority of sources 10.4.4 Sources of error and bias 10.4.5 Research investigation checklist 10.5 Review 10.5.1 Summary 10.5.2 Key terms UNIT 2 WHAT MAKES WATER SUCH A UNIQUE CHEMICAL? TOPIC 11 Properties of water 11.1 Overview 11.1.1 Introduction 11.1.2 What you will learn 11.2 Intermolecular forces in water 11.2.1 Hydrogen bonding in water 11.2.2 Melting and boiling temperatures of water 11.2.3 Melting point and boiling point of group 16 hydrides 11.3 Latent heat and specific heat capacity 11.3.1 Latent heat 11.3.2 Specific heat capacity 11.4 Review 11.4.1 Summary 11.4.2 Key terms 11.4.3 Practical work and experiments TOPIC 12 Water as a solvent 12.1 Overview 12.1.1 Introduction 12.1.2 What you will learn 12.2 Solution processes 12.2.1 Solubility 12.2.2 Ionic substances in water 12.2.3 Molecular substances in water 12.2.4 Electrical conductivity 12.3 Precipitation reactions 12.3.1 Forming a precipitate 12.3.2 Rules for solubility 12.3.3 Full equations for precipitation reactions 12.3.4 Ionic equations 12.4 Solvent properties of water in biological, domestic or industrial concepts 12.4.1 Solvent properties of water in biological contexts 12.4.2 Solvent properties of water in domestic contexts 12.4.3 Solvent properties of water in industrial contexts 12.5 Review 12.5.1 Summary 12.5.2 Key terms 12.5.3 Practical work and experiments TOPIC 13 Acid–base reactions in water 13.1 Overview 13.1.1 Introduction 13.1.2 What you will learn 13.2 Acids and bases 13.2.1 Acids 13.2.2 Bases 13.2.3 Safety with acids and bases 13.3 Brønsted–Lowry theory of acids and bases 13.3.1 Defining acids and bases according to the Brønsted–Lowry theory 13.3.2 Conjugate acid–base pairs 13.3.3 Amphiprotic species 13.3.4 Monoprotic, diprotic and triprotic acids 13.4 Concentrating on acids and bases 13.4.1 Calculating concentration using molarity 13.4.2 Strength of acids and bases 13.4.3 Concentration versus strength 13.5 pH and acidity 13.5.1 Ionic product of water 13.5.2 The pH scale 13.5.3 Calculating pH of strong acids 13.5.4 Relative strengths of acids and bases and pH 13.5.5 Calculating pH of strong bases 13.5.6 Measuring pH 13.5.7 Dilution of solutions 13.6 Reactions of acids 13.6.1 Salts 13.6.2 Reactions of acids with metals 13.6.3 Reactions of acids with carbonates 13.6.4 Reactions of acids with hydroxides 13.7 Acids and the environment 13.7.1 Acid rain 13.7.2 Ocean acidification 13.8 Review 13.8.1 Summary 13.8.2 Key terms 13.7.3 Practical work and investigations Topic 14 Redox reactions in water 14.1 Overview 14.1.1 Introduction 14.1.2 What you will learn 14.2 Redox reactions and agents 14.2.1 Introduction and history of redox reactions 14.2.2 Oxidising and reducing agents 14.2.3 Redox equations 14.3 Oxidation numbers 14.3.1 Using oxidation numbers in redox reaction investigations 14.4 Reactivity series of metals 14.4.1 Reactivity of metals 14.4.2 Metal displacement reactions 14.5 Corrosion 14.5.1 Types of corrosion 14.5.2 Wet corrosion process 14.5.3 Corrosion protection 14.6 Review 14.6.1 Summary 14.6.2 Key terms 14.6.3 Practical work and experiments UNIT 2 | AREA OF STUDY 1 REVIEW: AREA OF STUDY 1 How do substances interact with water? Topic 15 Water sample analysis 15.1 Overview 15.1.1 Introduction 15.2 The states of water and sampling protocols 15.2.1 Using water 15.2.2 Sampling protocols 15.3 Chemical contaminants 15.3.1 Sources of contaminants in water 15.3.2 Contaminants: heavy metals 15.3.3 Contaminants: persistent organic pollutants 15.3.4 Contaminants: microorganisms 15.3.5 Drinking water standards 15.4 Review 15.4.1 Summary 15.4.2 Key terms TOPIC 16 Measurement of solubility and concentration 16.1 Overview 16.1.1 Introduction 16.1.2 What you will learn 16.2 Measuring solubility and the use of solubility curves 16.2.1 Solubility of solids in water 16.2.2 Solubility of liquids and gases 16.2.3 Solubility curves 16.2.4 Crystallisation 16.3 Solution concentration 16.3.1 Units conversion 16.3.2 Common units of concentration 16.3.3 Concentration with reference to mass or volume 16.3.4 Concentration in percentage by mass or volume 16.3.5 Molar concentration 16.3.6 Concentration of ions in solution 16.4 Review 16.4.1 Summary 16.4.2 Key terms 16.4.3 Practical investigations TOPIC 17 Analysis for salts in water 17.1 Overview 17.1.1 Introduction 17.1.2 What you will learn 17.2 Chemical analysis 17.2.1 Qualitative versus quantitative analysis 17.2.2 Methods of chemical analysis 17.3 The sources of salts in water 17.3.1 Minerals 17.3.2 Heavy metals 17.3.3 Organo-metallic substances 17.3.4 Measuring salinity using electrical conductivity 17.4 Analytical methods 17.4.1 Stoichiometry 17.4.2 Mass–mass stoichiometry 17.4.3 Mass–concentration stoichiometry 17.4.4 Gravimetric analysis 17.4.5 The application of colorimetry and UV–visibility in water analysis 17.4.6 Calibration curves 17.4.7 The application of UV–visible spectroscopy in coloured water samples 17.4.8 The application of atomic absorption spectroscopy for metals in water samples 17.5 Desalination 17.5.1 Desalination methods 17.6 Review 17.6.1 Summary 17.6.2 Key terms 17.6.3 Practical investigations TOPIC 18 Analysis for organic compounds in water 18.1 Overview 18.1.1 Introduction 18.1.2 What you will learn 18.2 Organic compounds in the environment 18.2.1 Revision of organic chemistry 18.2.2 What are organic compounds used for? 18.2.3 Sources of organic contaminants in water 18.3 High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) 18.3.1 Introduction to chromatography 18.3.2 High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) 18.3.3 Interpreting the results from HPLC 18.3.4 Application of HPLC for concentrations of soluble organic contaminants 18.4 Review 18.4.1 Summary 18.4.2. Key terms TOPIC 19 Analysis for acids and bases in water 19.1 Overview 19.1.1 Introduction 19.1.2 What you will learn 19.2 Sources of acids and bases in water 19.2.1 Acidity and basicity in water 19.2.2 Alkalinity in water 19.2.3 Sources of acids and bases in water 19.2.4 Why do we analyse for acids and bases? 19.3 Solution stoichiometry (volume–volume stoichiometry) 19.3.1 Volumetric analysis 19.3.2 Dilution 19.4 Acid–base titrations 19.4.1 Titration procedure 19.4.2 The pipette 19.4.3 The burette 19.4.4 Volumetric flasks 19.4.5 Indicators 19.4.6 Sources of errors 19.4.7 Standard solutions 19.4.8 Titration curves 19.4.9 Calculations in acid–base titrations 19.4.10 Titrations with dilutions 19.5 Review 19.5.1 Summary 19.5.2 Key terms 19.5.3 Practical investigations UNIT 2 | AREA OF STUDY 2 REVIEW: AREA OF STUDY 2 How are substances in water measured and analysed? TOPIC 20 Practical investigation 20.1 Overview 20.1.1 Introduction 20.1.2 What you will learn 20.2 Key science skills in chemistry 20.2.1 The scientific method: why do we conduct investigations? 20.2.2 Using a log book 20.2.3 Variables 20.2.4 Developing aims and questions 20.2.5 Formulating hypotheses and making predictions 20.2.6 Planning and undertaking experiments 20.3 Concepts specific to an investigation 20.3.1 Concepts specific to investigations 20.3.2 Key terms 20.3.3 Chemical representations 20.4 Scientific research methodologies and techniques 20.4.1 Characteristics of scientific research methodologies 20.4.2 Techniques of primary qualitative and quantitative data collection 20.4.3 Choosing techniques relevant to an investigation 20.4.4 Precision, accuracy, reliability and validity 20.4.5 Minimisation of experimental bias 20.5 Ethics, health and safety guidelines 20.5.1 Ethics 20.5.2 Health and safety guidelines 20.6 Methods of organising, analysing and evaluating primary data 20.6.1 Organising primary data 20.6.2 Analysing primary data 20.6.3 Evaluating primary data 20.6.4 Sources of uncertainty and error 20.6.5 Limitations of data and methodology 20.7 Models and theories to understand observed phenomena 20.7.1 Models 20.7.2 Theories 20.8 Nature of evidence and key findings of investigations 20.8.1 Nature of evidence: supporting or refuting a hypothesis, model or theory 20.8.2 The key findings of investigations 20.9 Options and issues related to water quality 20.9.1 Monitoring water for contaminants 20.9.2 Key factors when monitoring water quality 20.10 Conventions of scientific report writing and scientific poster presentation 20.10.1 Conventions of report writing 20.10.2 Terminology and representations 20.10.3 Symbols 20.10.4 Equations and formulas 20.10.5 Units of measurements 20.10.6 Significant figures 20.10.7 Standard abbreviations 20.10.8 Acknowledgement of references 20.10.9 Presenting a scientific poster 20.10.10 Practical investigation checklist 20.11 Review 20.11.1 Summary 20.11.2 Key terms Answers Glossary Index Periodic table of the elements