Microbial Remediation of Azo Dyes with Prokaryotes

Description

This book details microbial remediation of azo dyes from wastewater including information on existing methods and technologies, their graduation, the emergence of new technologies, industrial practices, and real-case studies. Emphasis is placed on industrial applications and the elimination of toxic pollutants from wastewater through bacterial approach. Specific aspects discussed include effective separation through new adsorbents / newcomers, ion exchange process, coagulation / formulations, separations, and biological methods from wastewater. This book explains a paradigm shift towards the recovery of materials and energy from azo dye containing wastewater. Features: Provides information on the topic of prokaryotic-based technologies for azo dye degradation in wastewater treatment plant. Describes microbial enzymes and their role in bioremediation of environmental pollutants. Covers industrial acid mine tailing wastes, plastic wastes, distillery, and pulp paper industry effluent. Discusses critical insight into limitations of related technologies. Explains concepts through illustrations, figures, tables, and trivia boxes. This book aims at Researchers, Professionals, Graduate Students in Bioremediation and Environmental Protection, Waste Management, Applied Microbiology, Botany and Plant Biotechnology. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Contributors Preface Editor’s Biography 1 Azo Dye Degradation Using a Combination of Physicochemical and Biological Processes 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Azo Chemistry and Classification of Azo Dyes 1.2.1 Sources 1.2.2 Formation 1.2.3 Classifications 1.2.3.1 Classification of Azo Dyes Based On Azo Bonds 1.2.3.2 Classification of Azo Dyes Based On Reactive Functional Groups 1.3 Adverse Effects of Azo Compounds 1.3.1 Effects On Water 1.3.2 Effects On Health 1.4 Physicochemical Processes to Remove Azo Dyes From Wastewater 1.4.1 Membrane Filtration 1.4.2 Coagulation and Flocculation 1.4.2.1 Overview 1.4.3 Ion Exchange 1.4.4 Adsorption 1.4.5 AOPs 1.4.5.1 Fenton Oxidation 1.4.5.2 Ozonation 1.4.5.3 Ultraviolet Treatments 1.5 Biological Processes to Remove Azo Dyes From Wastewater 1.5.1 Aerobic Treatment 1.5.1.1 Aerobic Granulation Technology 1.5.1.2 Biofilm Reactor 1.5.1.3 Activated Sludge Process (Microbubble Aerator) 1.5.2 Anaerobic Treatment 1.5.3 Degradation of Azo Dyes By Microbes 1.6 Integrated Physicochemical and Biological Methods to Remove Azo Dyes From Wastewater 1.6.1 Integrated (Electro and Biooxidation) Approach for the Remediation of Industrial Wastewater That Contains Azo Dyes 1.6.2 Degradation of Azo Dyes Using a Combined Ozonation and Biological Treatment 1.7 Conclusions References 2 An Insight Into the Past, Present, and Future of Azo Dyes 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Timeline of Various Approaches Used in the Treatment of Azo Dyes 2.2.1 1980s 2.2.2 1990s 2.2.3 2000s 2.2.4 2010s 2.3 Methods Employed for the Removal of Dyes 2.3.1 Physical Methods 2.3.2 Chemical Methods 2.3.3 Biological Methods 2.3.3.1 Approaches for Microbial Biodegradation 2.3.3.2 Role of Various Microorganisms in the Biodegradation of Azo Dyes 2.4 Conclusion: Present Trends, Challenges, and Prospects References 3 Microbial Remediation of Azo Dyes Using Bacterial Approaches 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Benefits of Wastewater Treatment By Bacteria 3.3 Color Removal Mechanisms Using a Bacterial Approach 3.4 Bacterial Degradation of Azo Dyes 3.4.1 Immobilized Whole Bacteria 3.4.2 Bacterial Enzymes 3.4.2.1 Reductive Enzymes 3.4.2.2 Oxidative Enzymes 3.4.3 Bacterial Consortia 3.5 Factors That Affect Bacterial Decolorization and Degradation 3.5.1 O2 and Agitation 3.5.2 Bioavailability 3.5.3 Carbon and Nitrogen 3.5.4 Temperature 3.5.5 PH 3.5.6 Dye Concentration 3.5.7 Dye Structure 3.5.8 Electron Donors 3.5.9 Redox Mediators 3.5.10 High Salinity 3.6 Decolorization of Azo Dyes By Bacteria Under Different Conditions and Systems 3.6.1 Anaerobic Conditions 3.6.2 Anoxic Conditions 3.6.3 Aerobic Conditions 3.6.4 Redox Mediator System 3.7 Future Aspects of Bacterial Remediation 3.8 Conclusion References 4 Molecular Approaches for the Microbial Remediation of Azo Dyes Using a Bacterial Approach 4.1 Introduction to Microbial Bioremediation 4.1.1 Advantages of Microbial Remediation 4.1.2 Disadvantages of Microbial Remediation 4.2 Dyes 4.2.1 Structure and Properties of Azo Dyes 4.2.2 Synthesis of Azo Dyes 4.2.3 Dyeing Process 4.3 Toxic and Mutagenic Effects of Azo Dyes 4.4 Methods for Azo Dye Degradation 4.4.1 Physical and Chemical Methods 4.4.2 Biological Treatment 4.5 Factors That Affect the Degradation of Azo Dyes 4.6 Molecules Involved in Dye Degradation 4.7 Analysis of Biodegraded Products 4.8 Molecular Approaches for Bioremediation 4.9 The Future of Dye Degradation References 5 Microbes and Microbial Enzymes in the Bioremediation of Environmental Pollutants 5.1 Environmental Pollutants 5.2 Microbes Involved in Bioremediation 5.3 Extremophiles in Bioremediation 5.4 Genetically Engineered Microbes in Bioremediation 5.5 Microbial Enzymes Involved in Bioremediation 5.5.1 Microbial Oxidoreductases 5.5.1.1 Microbial Oxygenases 5.5.1.2 Microbial Laccases 5.5.1.3 Peroxidases 5.5.2 Microbial Hydrolytic Enzymes 5.5.2.1 Lipases 5.5.2.2 Microbial Cellulases 5.5.2.3 Microbial Proteases 5.6 Conclusion References 6 Microbial Communities for the Removal of Ammonium From Wastewater in an Activated Sludge System Combined With Low-Cost Biochar: A Review 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Cultivation and Formation of Granular Sludge 6.3 Characteristics of Granular Sludge 6.4 Application of Granular Sludge in Nutrient Treatment Systems 6.5 Factors That Affect Granular Sludge Formation 6.6 NH4 Adsorbed By Granular Sludge 6.7 Future Prospects for Granular Sludge When Removing Nutrients 6.8 Conclusions References 7 Microbial Degradation of Azo Dyes Present in Textile Industry Wastewater 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Types of Azo Dyes 7.3 Structure of Azo Dyes 7.4 Impact of Azo Dyes 7.5 Physicochemical Treatment of Azo Dyes 7.6 Azo Dye Degradation and Decolorization By Bacterial Strains 7.6.1 Decolorization By Single Or Mixed Bacterial Cultures 7.7 Factors That Influence the Degradation of Dyes 7.8 Mechanism of Dye Degradation 7.8.1 Bacterial Enzymes in Azo Dye Degradation 7.8.1.1 Azo Dye Degradation By Laccase 7.8.1.2 Azo Dye Degradation By Azoreductase 7.8.2 Indirect Or Mediated Biological Dye Degradation 7.8.3 Dye Decolorization By Chemical Reduction 7.9 Conclusions References 8 The Use of Microorganism for the Degradation of Azo Dyes 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Classification of Dyes 8.3 Methods for the Decolorization and Degradation of Azo Dyes 8.3.1 Physicochemical Methods for the Removal of Dye From Wastewater 8.3.1.1 Adsorption 8.3.1.2 Ion Exchange 8.3.1.3 Coagulation–Flocculation 8.3.1.4 Ozonation and Chemical Coagulation 8.3.1.5 Membrane Processes 8.3.1.6 Cavitation 8.3.1.7 AOP 8.3.1.8 Photocatalytic Degradation 8.3.1.9 Hybrid Processes 8.4 Biological Methods for the Treatment of Dye Effluents 8.4.1 Bacterial Degradation 8.4.2 Decolorization By Fungi 8.4.3 Decolorization By Algae 8.4.4 Degradation of Azo Dyes in a Bioreactor 8.4.5 Conventional Bioreactor 8.4.6 Hybrid Bioreactor 8.5 Conclusions References 9 Lignolytic Enzymes and Their Role in the Bioremediation of Environmental Pollutants: Prospects and Challenges 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Microbial Enzymes Involved in Bioremediation 9.3 Lignolytic Enzymes 9.3.1 Laccases 9.3.2 LiP 9.3.3 MnP 9.3.4 Versatile Peroxidase 9.3.5 Dye Oxidizing Enzymes 9.4 Industrial Waste Characteristics and the Role of Halophilic Lignolytic Enzymes in Their Valorization 9.4.1 Textile Industries 9.4.2 Pulp and Paper Mill 9.4.3 Tanneries 9.5 Other Bioremediation Applications for Lignolytic Enzymes 9.5.1 Coal Depolymerization 9.5.2 Pesticide and Herbicide Degradation 9.6 Conclusion References 10 Biodegradation of Synthetic Dyes From the Textile Industry By Microbes 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Decolorization and Degradation Methods 10.2.1 Microbial Methods for Dye Removal From Textile Wastewater 10.2.1.1 Biodegradation of Synthetic Dyes By Fungi 10.2.1.2 Biodegradation of Dyes By Yeasts 10.2.1.3 Biodegradation of Dyes By Algae and Plants 10.2.1.4 Biodegradation of Synthetic Dyes By Bacteria 10.2.2 Enzymatic Methods to Degrade Dyes 10.2.2.1 Laccases 10.2.2.2 Peroxidases 10.2.2.3 Azoreductases 10.3 Isolation and Screening of Bacteria That Degrade Synthetic Dyes 10.3.1 Growth and Selection of Bacteria 10.3.1.1 Enrichment Culture for the Sample 10.3.1.2 Serial Dilution of Sample 10.4 Quantification of Dye Decolorization 10.5 Screening of Bacteria That Decolorize Dyes 10.5.1 Initial Screening of Dye Decolorizing Bacterial Isolates Using Microtiter Plate Technique 10.5.2 Final Screening and Dye Decolorizing Efficiency of Bacterial Isolates 10.6 Factors That Influence Bacteria During Degradation 10.7 Conclusions References 11 Removal of Emerging Contaminants in Water and Wastewater By Microbes 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Sources of Wastewater and Types of ECs Present 11.2.1 Pharmaceuticals 11.2.2 PCPs 11.2.2.1 Synthetic Musk Compounds 11.2.2.2 Preservatives With Antimicrobial Activity 11.2.2.3 UV Filters 11.2.3 Per-Fluorinated Compounds 11.2.4 Nanomaterials 11.2.5 Other ECs 11.2.6 Sources of ECs 11.3 Threats of Emerging Pollutants On the Environment and Health 11.4 Conventional Methods for the Treatment of Wastewaters 11.5 Microbial Detoxification and Its Advantages 11.5.1 Operational Parameters That Affect Microbial Activity During Bioremediation 11.6 Diversity of Microorganisms Used in Wastewater Treatment 11.7 Different Bioremediation Approaches for ECs in Wastewater Treatments 11.7.1 Biosorption-Based Remediation 11.7.2 Phytoremediation and Microbial Remediation 11.7.3 Membrane-Based Bioreactors 11.7.4 Constructed Wetlands 11.8 Successful Applications for the Removal of ECs From Wastewaters Using Bioremediation 11.8.1 Removal of ECs Using MFCs 11.8.2 Removal of ECs By Spent Mushroom Compost 11.8.3 Microalgal Removal of Pharmaceuticals From Wastewater 11.8.4 Bioremediation of Agro-Industrial Effluent By Fungi 11.9 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 12 Systems Biology Aided Functional Analysis of Microbes That Have Rich Bioremediation Potential for Environmental Pollutants 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Role of SB in Bioremediation 12.3 SB Techniques for Bioremediation Studies 12.3.1 16S RRNA 12.3.2 PhyloChip 12.3.3 GeoChip 12.3.4 Phospholipid Fatty Acids 12.3.5 Functional Gene Clone Libraries 12.3.6 Genomics 12.3.7 Metagenomics in Bioremediation 12.3.8 Transcriptomics 12.3.9 Proteomics 12.3.10 Metabolomics 12.4 Limitations and Challenges of SB 12.5 Computational Tools Used for Analysis in SB 12.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 13 Bioremediation of Azo Dyes 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Treatment Processes for Azo Dyes 13.3 Bioremediation: Agents and Mechanisms 13.3.1 Bioremediation Agents for Azo Dyes 13.4 Future Scope 13.5 Conclusions References 14 Microbial Degradation of Azo Dyes Using Bacteria 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Azo Dyes 14.2.1 Structure and Source 14.2.2 Toxicity 14.3 Remediation Techniques 14.4 Bioremediation 14.5 Bacterial Degradation and Decolorization of Azo Dyes 14.5.1 Type of Bacteria 14.5.2 Mechanisms 14.5.3 Degradation and Decolorization Under Different Conditions 14.5.3.1 Aerobic Conditions 14.5.3.2 Anaerobic Conditions 14.5.3.3 Anoxic Conditions 14.5.4 Factors That Affect Bacterial Degradation and Decolorization of Azo Dyes 14.6 Recent Advances 14.7 Conclusions References 15 Bioremediation: A Low-Cost and Clean Green Technology for Environmental Management 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Classification of Textile Dyes 15.3 Impact On the Environment 15.4 Types of Bioremediation 15.4.1 In Situ Bioremediation 15.4.1.1 Bioaugmentation 15.4.1.2 Biostimulation 15.4.2 Ex Situ Bioremediation 15.4.2.1 Landfarming 15.4.2.2 Biopiles 15.4.2.3 Composting 15.4.3 Bioreactors 15.5 Mechanisms of Bioremediation 15.5.1 Physicochemical Treatments 15.5.1.1 Adsorption 15.5.1.2 Membrane Separation 15.5.1.3 Ion-Exchange 15.5.1.4 Coagulation 15.5.1.5 Oxidative Remediation of Dyes 15.5.1.6 Ozonation 15.6 Biological Treatment 15.6.1 Biodegradation of Dyes Using Bacterial Strains 15.6.2 Biodegradation of Dyes Via Fungal Strains 15.6.3 Biodegradation of Dyes Via Algal Strains 15.7 Microorganism Used in Bioremediation 15.7.1 Bacteria 15.7.2 Actinomycetes 15.7.3 Fungi 15.7.4 Algae 15.8 Enzymatic Biodegradation 15.8.1 Laccase 15.8.2 Catalysis of Laccases 15.8.3 LiP 15.8.4 Catalysis of LiP 15.8.5 MnP 15.8.6 Azoreductase 15.9 GMOs in Bioremediation 15.10 Nano Technological Interventions in Bioremediation 15.10.1 Nanoremediation 15.10.2 Nanoscale Tools Used in Bioremediation 15.10.2.1 C Nanotubes and Nanocrystals 15.10.2.2 Nano Iron 15.10.2.3 Dendrimers 15.11 Bioremediation of Organic Pollutants 15.11.1 Textile Dyes 15.11.2 Aromatic Compounds 15.11.3 Heavy Metals 15.11.4 Petroleum Hydrocarbons 15.11.5 Pesticides 15.12 Factors That Affect Bioremediation 15.12.1 Nutrient Availability 15.12.2 Availability of O2 15.12.3 Temperature 15.12.4 PH 15.13 Economics of Bioremediation 15.14 Conclusions References 16 Phytoremediation: A Novel and Promising Approach for the Clean-Up of Heavy Metal-Contaminated Soils Associated With Microbes 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Mechanisms for Phytoremediation 16.2.1 Phytoextraction Or Phytoaccumulation 16.2.2 Phytostabilization 16.2.3 Phytovolatilization 16.2.4 Phytodegradation Or Phytotransformation 16.2.5 Phytofiltration Or Rhizofiltration 16.3 Role of Different Plants in Heavy Metal Phytoremediation 16.4 Role of Microbes in Heavy Metal Phytoremediation 16.4.1 Role of Endophytic Microbes 16.4.2 Role of Extremophiles 16.5 Enhancement of Phytoremediation 16.5.1 Chemical Enhancement 16.5.2 Genetic Engineering Or Modification 16.5.3 Transplastomics Approach 16.5.4 CRISPR Technique 16.6 Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals 16.6.1 Cadmium 16.6.2 Arsenic 16.6.3 Copper 16.6.4 Lead 16.6.5 Mercury 16.6.6 Chromium 16.7 Role of Metagenomics and Transcriptomics 16.8 Conclusions References 17 A Combination of Biosorption and Enzymatic Degradation of Azo Dyes 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Adsorption of Azo Dyes 17.2.1 Adsorption Mechanisms 17.2.2 Adsorption of Azo Dyes 17.3 Enzymatic Catalysis of Azo Dyes 17.3.1 Azo Dye Degradation Pathways By Laccases 17.3.2 Azo Dye Degradation Pathways By LiP and MnP 17.3.3 Studies On the Enzymatic Degradation of Azo Dyes 17.4 Combined Biosorption and Enzyme Catalysis 17.5 Conclusions References 18 A Combination of Physicochemical and Biological Methods for Azo Dye Degradation 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Methods for Azo Dye Degradation 18.2.1 Physical Methods 18.2.1.1 Adsorption 18.2.1.2 Irradiation 18.2.1.3 Filtration Processes 18.2.1.4 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 18.2.2 Chemical Methods 18.2.2.1 Oxidative Process 18.2.2.2 Condensation and Precipitation 18.2.2.3 Electrocoagulation 18.2.2.4 Fenton Process 18.2.2.5 Photolytic Chemical Processes 18.3 Biological Methods for the Degradation of Azo Dyes 18.3.1 Decolorization and Degradation of Azo Dyes By Bacteria 18.3.1.1 Bacterial Degradation of Azo Dyes By Pure Cultures 18.3.1.2 Bacterial Degradation of Azo Dyes By Mixed Cultures and Consortia 18.3.1.3 Bacterial Degradation of Azo Dyes By Immobilized Cells 18.3.1.4 Microbial Fuel Cell Azo Dye Decomposition 18.3.2 Enzymatic Degradation of Azo Dyes 18.3.2.1 Azoreductase 18.3.2.2 NADH–2,6-Dichloroindophenol Reductase 18.3.2.3 Tyrosinase 18.3.2.4 Laccases 18.3.2.5 Peroxidase 18.3.2.6 PPO 18.3.3 Algae (Phycoremediation) 18.3.4 Fungal Degradation of Azo Dyes 18.3.4.1 Degradation of Azo Dyes Using Yeast 18.3.4.2 Decoloration of Azo Dyes Using Filamentous Fungi 18.3.5 Genetically Modified Organisms for the Degradation of Azo Dyes 18.3.6 Degradation of Azo Dyes By Plants (Phytoremediation) 18.4 Conclusions and Future Directions References 19 Cyanobacteria Mediated Bioremediation of Hazardous Dyes 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Conventional Methods for Dye Removal 19.3 Cyanobacteria Mediated Dye Removal 19.4 Conclusions Acknowledgments References 20 Microbial Enzymes and Their Role in the Bioremediation of Environmental Pollutants: Prospects and Challenges 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Principles of Bioremediation 20.3 Types of Bioremediation 20.3.1 In Situ 20.3.2 Ex Situ 20.4 Effects of Heavy Metals On the Environment and Human Health 20.4.1 Arsenic 20.4.2 Lead 20.4.3 Mercury 20.4.4 Chromium 20.5 Enzymes Used in Bioremediation 20.5.1 Oxidoreductases 20.5.1.1 Oxygenases 20.5.1.2 Laccases 20.5.1.3 Peroxidases 20.5.2 Hydrolases 20.5.2.1 Lipases 20.5.2.2 Cellulases 20.5.2.3 Carboxylesterases 20.5.2.4 Phosphotriesterases 20.5.2.5 Haloalkane Dehalogenases 20.6 Mechanisms of Bioremediation 20.6.1 Mobilization 20.6.1.1 Enzymatic Oxidation 20.6.1.2 Enzymatic Reduction 20.6.1.3 Complexation 20.6.1.4 Siderophores 20.6.2 Immobilization 20.6.2.1 Precipitation Or Solidification 20.6.2.2 Biosorption 20.6.2.3 Bioaccumulation 20.7 Technology Used 20.7.1 Genetic Engineering 20.7.2 Enzyme Engineering 20.7.3 Immobilized Enzyme Technology 20.7.4 Nanozymes 20.8 Omics: A System Biology Approach to Bioremediation 20.8.1 Genomics 20.8.2 Transcriptomics 20.8.3 Proteomics 20.8.4 Metabolomics and Metabolic Flux Analysis 20.9 Advantages and Limitations of Bioremediation 20.10 Future Prospects 20.11 Conclusions References Index