The Handbook of Impression Formation: A Social Psychological Approach

Description

Presenting diverse perspectives from eminent scholars and contemporary researchers, The Handbook of Impression Formation contextualizes current and future areas of research in the social psychology of impression formation within a rich historic framework. Affirming that impression formation is at the core of human experience, chapters explore how and why people form snap judgments about others and when those impressions update. They examine the processes through which people infer the reasons for the events they encounter, allowing people to plan for appropriate behavioral responses to social contexts. The research reviewed is informed by the foundational theory of unconscious automatic processes involved in making judgements of other people, pioneered by Professor Jim Uleman who contributes a chapter that suggests important new directions, and concludes the volume by reflecting on the state of the field more broadly. The book explores how certain attributes stimulate categorization, examining current issues around implicit bias, stereotypes, and social media. Chapters cover a range of approaches, featuring personal narratives, presentation of new data and discoveries, comprehensive literature reviews, and contemplations on where the field must go and what questions require focus for progress to be made, calling for even the most advanced scholars to contribute more to the collective investigation of impression formation. This fascinating work provides a solid foundation from which all researchers can build a new and unique program of research, and arms the reader with the intellectual tools they need to chart new theoretical territory and discover aspects of the human experience we have yet to even wonder about. It is essential reading for students and academics in social psychology, and the social sciences more broadly. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Contents Contributors Preface: Impression Formation in Social Psychology References Part I: Source of Input to Impression Formation: When Features of the External Physical World Meet Internal Mental Representations 1. Social Categorizations as Decisions Made under Uncertainty Social Categorization: Systematic but Not Static A Judgment and Decision-Making Framework for Social Categorizations Social Categorizations as Decisions under Uncertainty Self-Relevant Utility Concerns Compel Conservative and Quick Categorizations Other-Relevant Utility Concerns Compel Cautious and Slow Categorizations The Heuristic Decision Model of Social Categorization Implications for Categorization Biases Implications for Social Reasoning Implications for Evaluative Judgments Conclusion References 2. From Spontaneous Trait Inferences to Spontaneous Person Impressions Spontaneous Person Inferences The Importance of Faces The Robustness of Associating Affective Inferences with Faces Beyond Inferences from Faces and Behaviors Conclusion References 3. Expressed Accuracy: Spontaneous Trait Production and Inference from Voice The Problem of the Big Five AI and Synthetic Voices Challenges and Solutions When Inferring Traits from Voice Agreement Among Listeners Acknowledgment of Developmental Stages, Motivations, and Culture A Lack of a Neutral Communication Signal Evolution and Development: Understanding the Voice as a Behavioral Signal Expressed Accuracy: An Integrated Approach to Modeling STP and STI The Brunswik Model Conclusion and Future Directions References 4. O Brother, O Sister, Who Art Thou? Inferring the Gender of Others in Ambiguous Situations Goals Gender Inferences Formation of Gender Inferences Automaticity Pervasiveness Binding and Generative Inferences Accuracy of Gender Inferences Predictors of Gender Inferences Gender Stereotypes Androcentric Bias Effects of Gender Inferences Promotion of Stereotypes Bidirectional of Effects Implications For Gender For External Categories References 5. Differences between Spontaneous and Intentional Trait Inferences Divergent Processes in Spontaneous and Intentional Trait Inferences Divergent Content in Spontaneous and Intentional Trait Inferences What Are People Thinking, Consciously and Not? Stereotypes and STIs Biernat's Shifting Standards Model Gender Stereotypes in STIs and Intentional Impressions STI Control Trials STI Experimental Trials and Difference Scores STIs and Intentional Inferences Further Speculations on Relations between Spontaneous and Intentional Thought Notes References 6. Bridging the Gap between Spontaneous Behavior- and Stereotype-Based Impressions Spontaneous Trait Inference and Stereotypic Inference as Overlapping Processes Spontaneous Trait Inference vs. Stereotyping: Similarities and Differences Diverging Inputs of Focus in Stage Models of Behavior- and Category-Based Impressions Non-Overlapping Empirical Focus in the Spontaneous Trait Inference and Stereotyping Literatures What We Know about the Connections between Spontaneous Trait Inferences and Stereotyping Stereotype Inconsistency Disrupts Spontaneous Trait Inferences Spontaneous Trait Inferences Can Be Formed for Group Targets Future Directions: Decolonizing the Spontaneous Trait Inference Literature by Expanding the Intersection of Spontaneous Trait Inference and Racial Stereotyping Research Intersection of Behavior- and Stereotype-Based Inference Processes Unfolding over Time Spontaneous Trait Inferences in Racially Diverse Contexts Expanding Participant Populations Methodological Traditions and Opportunities Explore Behavior Ambiguity Explore Target Appearance Variability Diversifying the Research Conclusion Acknowledgments Note References 7. The Secret Life of Spontaneous Trait Inferences: Emergence, Puzzles, and Accomplishments Forming Impressions of Personality: Inferring Traits from Inferred Traits Forming Impressions versus Memory: Explaining the Unknown with Another Unknown Attribution: When What Precedes Why Text Comprehension Comes to Rescue Intentional and Spontaneous Trait Inferences and a Solution for Apparently Contradictory Findings Homer or a Greek with the Same Name The New Paradigm in the Block: Trait Word Association New Extensions in STI Research: Text Comprehension, Semantics, and beyond Semantics The Minimalist Hypothesis: Implications for STI Research Language as a "Game Changer" Inside Out and Outside In Conclusion Notes References 8. Predictively Coding Objects and Persons Predictive Coding Predictions Spanning across Psychological Distance Person Perception Top-Down Influences on Face Perception Spontaneous Trait Inferences across Psychological Distance Conclusion References Part II: Impression Formation Processes: Implicit Effects of Inference and Activation 9. Reflections on a 30-Year-Long Program of Research Exploring Perceivers' Spontaneous Thoughts about Social Targets The Origin Story: Two Guys in a Mini-Van and the Duck Conferences The Spark That Lit the Fire The Trait Relearning Paradigm and the Savings Measure: An Overview Thoughts about STI Findings from the Research Program Evidence of STI Generation as Measured via Savings Is Not Affected by Impression Formation or Memory Goals A Note of Caution Results That Help to Validate the Savings Measure as an Indicator of Trait Inferences Adding Validity Evidence by Ruling Out Alternative Explanations for Savings Effects Validating Savings as a Measure of Trait Inference-Making via Convergence across Measures Is There Anything Unique about the Savings Measure? A Note on Discriminant Validity Enter Spontaneous Trait Transference (STT) STI vs. STT: Implications for Theory, Measurement, and Research Theoretical Musings Implications for the Measurement of Trait Inference-Making Pitting STI vs. STT Beyond Trait Inferences Why Should Readers Who Are Not Invested in Social Cognition Give a Hoot? Acknowledgement References 10. Impression Formation, Right Side Up The Inference Process A New Look at Automaticity The Future of Automaticity References 11. Unintentional Influences in Intentional Impression Formation Effects of Mere Co-occurrence and Relational Information Evidence in Research Using Implicit and Explicit Measures Evidence in Research Using Multinomial Modeling Theoretical Explanations Time for Encoding Repetition Time during Judgment Temporal Delay Intentional Control Summary Implications for Social Impression Formation Conclusions Notes References Appendix 12. Stereotypes and Trait Inference The Mental Representation of Social Knowledge Stereotype Efficiency and Encoding Flexibility Summary References 13. Perceiving Group Attributes Spontaneously: Broadening the Domain Important Role of Inferences in Social Psychology: Early Research Stereotypes Impressions Implicit Personality Theories Correspondent Inferences Spontaneous Trait Inferences (STIs) Spontaneous Inferences: Expanding the Domain Spontaneous Inferences about Groups STIs and Group Impressions Spontaneous Trait Inferences about Groups (STIGs) New Processes for Stereotype Formation? Stereotypes and Spontaneous Inferences Making Sense of Inconsistencies Spontaneous Inferences and Intergroup Differentiation STIs and Evaluative Ingroup Bias STIGs and Intergroup Differentiation Concluding Remarks References 14. Forming and Managing Impressions Across Racial Divides Impression Formation Foundational Research Impression Formation Across Groups Stereotypes Spontaneity of Stereotypes Stereotype Content Intersectional Stereotypes Implications for Attitudes and Behaviors Impression Management Foundational Research Impression Management Across Groups Meta-stereotypes Interpersonal Goals Interpersonal Behavior Implications for Impression Formation Future Research Conclusion References 15. Understanding Guilt-by-Association: A Review of the Psychological Literature on Attitude Transfer and Generalization Lay Beliefs about the Acceptability of Attitude Transfer Individual Differences in Lay Beliefs about the Acceptability of Attitude Transfer Entitativity and Lay Beliefs about the Acceptability of Attitude Transfer Essence-Based Entitativity Agency-Based Entitativity Entitativity and Attitude Transfer Effects Evidence for Attitude Transfer on Direct and Indirect Measures of Evaluation An Associative Learning Explanation for Attitude Transfer and Generalization Effects Challenges to an Associative Learning Explanation for Attitude Transfer and Generalization Effects A Propositional Account of Attitude Transfer Effects Similarity, Categorization, and Valence Effects in Attitude Transfer Similarity between Stimuli Impacts Generalization Stimulus Valence Stereotyping and Other Related Phenomenon Concluding Remarks Acknowledgement Notes References Part III: The Malleability of First Impressions 16. Origins of Impression Formation in Infancy Studying Impression Formation in Infancy Evaluations Based on Morally Relevant Behavior Evaluations Based on Helping and Hindering/Harming Helping and Hindering Harming Evaluations Based on Fair and Biased Resource Distribution The Role of Mental States in Infants' Evaluations Summary: Evaluations Based on Morally Relevant Behavior Inferences About Future Behavior Infants' Behavioral Inferences Are Infants' Inferences Biased? Summary: Inferences About Future Behavior Impression Updating (How) Do Adults Update Their Impressions? (How) Do Infants Update Their Impressions? Infants' Evaluations of Agents Who Inconsistently Help and Hinder Conclusions and Implications for Future Research Notes References 17. Around the World in 80 Milliseconds (or Less): Spontaneous Trait Inference across Cultures Direct Cross-Cultural Comparisons Interim Discussion Individual Difference Approaches Priming Culture Spontaneous Situation Inferences: We Have a Situation Here A Plot Twist Summary and Conclusions Notes References 18. The Updating of First Impressions Types of Impressions Why Is the Updating of First Impressions Difficult? How Is Impression Updating Defined, Especially for Implicit Impression Updating? Addition Negation Memory Reconsolidation Evidence for Impression Updating: Aspects of the New Information Encountered Updating Explicit Impressions from Inconsistent Information Updating Implicit Impressions from Inconsistent Information Updating Impressions from Information-Driven Factors Other Than Inconsistency Evidence for Impression Updating: The Perceiver's Capacity and Motivation to Update Motives That Facilitate Explicit Updating Motives That Facilitate Implicit Updating Evaluative and Semantic Systems Conclusion Notes References 19. Are We Stuck on the Face? New Evidence for When and How People Update Face-Based Implicit Impressions First Impressions from Faces and Why They Matter Multiple Trait Inferences Single Trait Inferences Irresistible Influences of Faces Why Face-Based Impressions Are So Persistent and Difficult to Overcome Influence of Faces in Implicit Impressions Diagnosticity Reliability Reinterpretation The Persistence of Updated Face-Based Implicit Impressions Lessons from Research on Changing Face-Based Implicit Evaluations Faces Are Not a "Special" Type of Information How Can One Escape Face Bias? The Properties of Evidence Matter Changing Impressions about Individuals to Groups Conclusion References 20. Memory Consolidation: The Cornerstone for Gauging Spontaneous Impression Longevity Forming and Categorizing First Impressions Character Trait Impressions Perceiving Others' Goals Making Judgments on Whether Someone Is Good or Bad Opportunities for Automatic Inferences Are Unbounded Memory Consolidation Why Do Some Impressions Stick While Others Do Not? What's Next for First Impression Research? Concluding Remarks References 21. Confronting First Impressions: Motivating Self-Regulation of Stereotypes and Prejudice through Prejudice Confrontation Awareness of Stereotypes Detecting Bias through Prejudice Confrontations Frequency of Prejudice Confrontations The Role of Guilt in Self-Regulating Stereotypes Development of Cues for Control Understanding the Source and Endurance of Guilt How Social Norms of Stereotype Use Influence Guilt How Confronters' Social Identities Influence Confrontations and Guilt The Role of Rumination in Self-Regulating Stereotypes Understanding the Source and Onset of Rumination The Reach of Prejudice Confrontations across People and Biases The Effect of Witnessing a Prejudice Confrontation The Broad Self-Regulation of Stereotypes A Need to Consider Prejudice Confrontations through an Intersectional Framework Conclusion Notes References 22. Implicit Person Memory: Domain-General and Domain-Specific Processes of Learning and Change Implicit Person Memory as a Case Study of Domain-General Processes Responsiveness of Implicit Person Memory to Different Types of Learning The Role of Associative vs. Propositional Processes in Implicit Person Memory Domain-Specific Processes in Implicit Person Memory Additional Evidence for Flexibility and the Role of Relational Information Evidence of Domain-Specific Processes Category-Level Information vs. Individuating Information The Role of Facial Information Diagnostic Information and Reinterpretation Interim Summary: The Flexibility of Implicit Person Memory Open Empirical and Theoretical Questions in Implicit Person Memory Do We Need a Domain-Specific Theory of Implicit Person Memory? What about Different Definitions of Effectiveness? What about Different Encoding Conditions? Finally, What about Mental Representations? Conclusion Notes References Afterward 23. Impressions of Impression Formation With Gratitude and Joy The Future of Impression Formation Categories, Causes, and Bayes Nets Interaction-Based Impressions in Evaluative and Semantic Memories Representational Similarity Analysis (RSA) References Index