Bionanotechnology in Cancer: Diagnosis and Therapy

Description

The cancer research world is looking forward to bionanotechnology to find the best solutions for a complete cure from cancer, which is not possible with the current established treatment methods. The past decade of research on nano imaging and drug delivery in cancer has witnessed many interesting papers and reviews, but there has not been a concise resource that discusses all fields related to nano cancer research in diagnosis and drug delivery. This book fills this gap and presents the latest bionano research in cancer, focusing on nanodiagnostics and nanotherapy. The book is organized into two sections. The section on nanodiagnostics focuses on topics such as diagnostic methods in cancer-related therapy and use of radiolabeled nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, acoustically reflective nanoparticles, X-ray computed tomography, and optical nanoprobes for diagnosis. The section on nanotherapy focuses on nanomaterials in chemotherapy, magnetic nanoparticles for hyperthermia against cancer, phototherapy, nanotechnology-mediated radiation therapy, nanoparticle-mediated small-RNA deliveries for molecular therapies, and theranostics. The book will serve as the gateway to enter the beautiful and elegant field of bionanoscience, which is considered the last hope for the fight against cancer and will be a highly useful resource for the students, researchers, teachers, and curious readers working in this field or related fields. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Preface Foreword Chapter 1: Introduction to Cancer, Conventional Therapies, and Bionano-Based Advanced Anticancer Strategies 1.1: Cancer 1.2: Understanding Cancer and Its Occurrence 1.2.1: Genes Activities Related to Cancer 1.3: Different Theories of Carcinogenesis 1.4: Factors Influencing Cancer Development 1.4.1: Intrinsic/Biological Factors 1.4.2: External Factors 1.5: Microenvironment of Cancer 1.5.1: Tumor Angiogenesis 1.5.2: Physical and Chemical Cues 1.5.3: Acidosis 1.5.4: High Interstitial Fluid Pressure 1.5.5: Enhanced Permeability Retention 1.5.6: Hypoxia 1.6: Cellular and Non-Cellular Components That Support Tumor Growth 1.6.1: Cellular Components 1.6.2: Non-Cellular Components 1.7: Difference between Normal Cells and Cancer Cells 1.8: Conventional Anti-Cancer Therapies 1.9: Cell Death and Cancer 1.10: Advanced Nanotechnology for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy 1.10.1: Key Features of Nanomaterials for Therapy and Diagnostic Applications 1.10.1.1: Nanoparticle size 1.10.1.2: Nanoparticle surface properties 1.10.1.3: NPs in diagnosis 1.10.1.4: NPs in imaging 1.10.1.5: Targeted nanoparticles 1.10.1.6: Nanomaterials to target and regulate tumor and its microenvironment 1.10.2: Challenges Faced by NPs in Combatting Tumor 1.10.2.1: Challenges faced during circulation 1.10.2.2: Challenges after reaching tumor 1.11: Conclusion and Future Perspective Chapter 2: Understanding the Interaction of Nanoparticles at the Cellular Interface 2.1: Introduction 2.2: Nanotechnology 2.3: NPs and Cell Internalization 2.4: Transmembrane Penetration by Designed Nanomaterials 2.5: Engineered Protein Corona: A Better Drug Delivery System 2.6: Subcellular Interaction of NPs 2.7: Endosomal/Lysosomal Escape of NPs 2.7.1: Formation of Membrane Pores in Lysosomes/Endosomes 2.7.2: Proton Sponge Effect 2.7.3: Fusion with Endosomal Membrane 2.7.4: Photochemical Rupture of Endosomal Membrane 2.8: Tumor and Nanomedicine 2.9: Smart Material as Drug Delivery Nanoparticle 2.9.1: Polymeric Drug Nanocarrier: Act as a Smart Material 2.10: Conclusion and Future Perspective Nanodiagnostics Chapter 3: Radiolabeled Nanoparticles for Cancer Diagnosis 3.1: Introduction 3.2: SPECT 3.3: Positron Emission Tomography 3.4: Radiolabeled Nanoparticles 3.4.1: Polymer-Based RNPs 3.4.2: Liposome-Based RNPs 3.4.3: Carbon Nanotube-Based RNPs 3.4.4: Inorganic NPs as RNPs 3.5: Multimodal Imaging of PET and SPECT with MRI, CT, and NIRF 3.6: Conclusion and Future Prospects Chapter 4: Magnetic Nanoparticles for Cancer Diagnosis 4.1: Introduction 4.2: Principle of MRI 4.3: MNPs as MRI Contrast Agents 4.4: Dual-Mode (T1 and T2) MRI Contrast Agents 4.5: Multimodal Imaging: MRI with PET, SPECT, Optical, and Ultrasound 4.6: Novel Application of MNPs for Imaging 4.6.1: Magnetic Particle Imaging–MRI 4.6.2: MMUS–US Dual-Modal Imaging 4.6.3: MPA–US Dual-Modal Imaging 4.7: Conclusion and Future Prospects Chapter 5: Acoustically Reflective Nanoparticles for Tumor Diagnosis 5.1: Introduction 5.2: Ultrasound Imaging 5.2.1: Microbubble as Contrast Agent 5.2.2: Different Nanobubbles as Contrast Agents 5.2.2.1: PFC emulsion nanodroplets 5.2.2.2: Echogenic Liposomes 5.2.2.3: Polymer-based nanobubbles 5.2.2.4: Solid NPs 5.3: Multimodal Imaging: US Imaging with MRI, PET, SPECT, and PA 5.4: Conclusion and Future Prospects Chapter 6: X-Ray Computed Tomography and Nanomaterials as Contrast Agents for Tumor Diagnosis 6.1: Introduction 6.2: Iodinated and Gold-Based Nano Contrast Agents 6.3: Radiopaque Polymeric NPs 6.4: Inorganic Nanomaterials 6.5: Multi-Modal Imaging of X-Ray CT with MRI, PET, and FI 6.6: Conclusion and Future Prospects Chapter 7: Optical Nanoprobes for Diagnosis 7.1: Introduction 7.2: Optical Imaging with Nanoparticles 7.2.1: Semiconductor QDs 7.2.2: Metallic NPs 7.2.3: Carbon Nanotubes 7.2.4: Polymeric Nanoparticles 7.2.5: UCNPs 7.2.6: Ceramic NPs 7.3: Conclusion and Future Prospects Nanotherapy Chapter 8: Nanomaterials in Chemotherapy 8.1: Introduction 8.1.1: DDS 8.1.2: DDS Evolution 8.1.3: Nanomedicine and DDS 8.2: DDS Behavior in Bloodstream 8.3: Drug Release Mechanisms 8.3.1: Diffusion-Controlled Release 8.3.2: Solvent-Controlled Release 8.3.3: Chemically Programmed Release 8.4: Lipid-Based DDSs 8.4.1: Composition and Preparation 8.4.2: Drug Loading into Liposomes 8.4.3: Targeting and Drug Release 8.4.4: Lipid-Coated Polymeric Nanoparticles 8.4.5: Hybrid Liposomes 8.5: Polymer-Based DDSs 8.5.1: Polymeric Micelles 8.5.1.1: Drug loading and release in polymeric micelles 8.5.2: Polymer Vesicles 8.5.3: Polymer–Drug Conjugates 8.5.4: Dendritic Polymers 8.5.5: Hyperbranched Polymers 8.6: Inorganic Nanomaterials 8.7: Carbon Nanostructures 8.8: Nanoscale Metal-Organic Frameworks 8.9: Clinically Approved Cancer Nano-Chemotherapeutics 8.10: Conclusion and Future Prospects Chapter 9: Magnetic Nanoparticles for Hyperthermia against Cancer 9.1: Introduction 9.2: Biology of Hyperthermia and Cell Death 9.3: Heat Generating Sources for Hyperthermia 9.4: Concepts of Nanotechnology and Hyperthermia: Nanothermotherapy 9.5: Mechanism of Heat Generation 9.5.1: Metal Nanoparticle Heating 9.5.2: MNP Heating 9.6: Factors Influencing Design of MNPs for Hyperthermia 9.7: Magnetic Nanomaterials for Hyperthermia 9.8: Significance of SPIONs in Hyperthermia 9.9: Engineered Smart Nanosystems: Drug Delivery via Hyperthermia 9.10: Examples of MNP Hyperthermia in Biology 9.11: Conclusion and Future Prospects Chapter 10: Phototherapy Using Nanomaterials 10.1: Introduction 10.2: Photothermal Therapy 10.2.1: Metal-Based Nanomaterial 10.2.1.1: Gold nanoshells 10.2.1.2: Gold nanorods 10.2.1.3: Hollow gold nanoshells 10.2.1.4: Gold nanocages 10.2.1.5: Gold nanostars 10.2.2: Carbon Nanomaterials 10.2.2.1: CNTs 10.2.2.2: Graphene 10.2.2.3: Fullerenes 10.3: Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) – Introduction 10.3.1: Challenges to Clinical Adoption of PDT 10.3.1.1: Photosensitizers 10.3.1.2: Light wavelength 10.3.1.3: Selective drug delivery 10.4: Nanoparticles in PDT 10.4.1: Passive Nanoparticles 10.4.1.1: Biodegradable nanoparticle carriers 10.4.1.2: Non-biodegradable nanoparticle carriers 10.4.2: Active Nanoparticles 10.4.2.1: Photosensitizer nanoparticles 10.4.2.2: Self-lighting nanoparticles 10.4.2.3: Upconversion nanoparticles 10.5: Conclusion and Future Prospects Chapter 11: Nanotechnology-Mediated Radiation Therapy 11.1: Introduction 11.2: Radiotherapy: Principles and Examples in Various Cancers 11.2.1: Breast Cancer 11.2.2: Liver Cancer 11.2.3: Ovarian Cancer 11.2.4: Head and Neck Cancer 11.2.5: Prostate Cancer 11.3: Techniques of Radiation Therapy 11.3.1: Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy 11.3.2: Image-Guided Radiation Therapy 11.3.3: Particle Therapy 11.3.4: 3D Conformal Radiotherapy (3DCRT) and Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy 11.3.5: Internal Radiation Therapy 11.4: Radiation Induced Cell Death Mechanisms 11.4.1: Mitotic Cell Death 11.4.2: Apoptosis and Necrosis 11.4.3: Autophagy 11.4.4: Senescence 11.5: Risks Associated with Conventional Radiotherapy 11.6: Nanotechnology-Mediated Radiotherapy Treatments 11.6.1: Gold Nanoparticles 11.6.2: Platinum- and Silver-Based NPs 11.6.3: Gadolinium-Based NPs 11.6.4: Hafnium-Based NPs 11.6.5: Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 11.7: Conclusion and Future Perspectives Chapter 12: Role of Nanoparticles in Cancer Immunotherapy 12.1: Introduction 12.1.1: Innate and Adaptive Immunity 12.1.2: Cancer and Treatment Methods 12.2: Tumor Immune Surveillance and Immunoediting 12.3: Cancer Immunotherapy 12.3.1: Enhancement Immunotherapy 12.3.1.1: Passive immunotherapy 12.3.1.2: Active immunotherapy 12.3.2: Normalization Immunotherapy (Tumor Specific Immune Activation) 12.4: Immune Evasion Strategies by Tumor 12.4.1: Downregulating MHC Class I Expression 12.4.2: Developing Resistance to CTL-Mediated Killing Mechanisms 12.4.3: Turning Off Activated T-Cells via Direct Contact 12.4.4: Releasing Soluble Factors to Inhibit Immune Cells 12.4.5: Inhibiting T Cells through Bystander Effect 12.5: Tumor Immunotherapy: Advantages, Drawbacks, and Need of Combination Approaches 12.6: Nano Immunotherapy 12.6.1: Delivery of TAA and Adjuvants to APCs 12.6.2: Role of Artificial APCs 12.6.3: Direct Activation of TAA-Specific T Cells 12.6.4: Role of NPs in Targeting Immunosuppressive TME 12.7: Conclusion and Future Perspectives Chapter 13: Nanoparticle-Mediated Small RNA Deliveries for Molecular Therapies 13.1: Introduction 13.1.1: Introduction to Small RNA Deliveries 13.2: Lipid-Based Nanovectors for Small RNA Deliveries 13.2.1: Liposomes/Lipoplexes 13.2.2: Stable Nucleic Acid Lipid Particles 13.3: Structured Nanoparticles for Small RNA Deliveries 13.3.1: Inorganic Nanoparticles for Small RNAs Deliveries 13.3.1.1: Carbon nanoparticles for small RNA deliveries 13.3.1.2: QD for small RNAs deliveries 13.3.1.3: Gold nanoparticles/nanorods/nanostars for small RNAs deliveries 13.3.1.4: Other inorganic nanoparticles in small RNA deliveries 13.3.2: Organic Nanoparticles for Small RNA Deliveries 13.3.2.1: Polymeric nanoparticles 13.4: Natural Polymers 13.5: Small RNA Deliveries in Clinical Trials 13.6: Conclusion and Future Perspectives Chapter 14: Theranostics: A New Holistic Approach in Nanomedicine 14.1: Introduction 14.2: Bioconjugation Technology for Theranostic Materials 14.3: Polymeric Nano and Microstructures 14.4: Radio-Isotopic Nanomaterials 14.5: Nano Carbon Structures 14.5.1: Graphene as Theranostic Agent 14.5.2: Nanodiamonds as Theranostic Agents 14.5.3: Fullerene and Carbon Nanotubes 14.6: Quantum Dots 14.7: Gold Nanostructures 14.8: Magnetic Nanoparticles 14.9: Clinical Translations of Theranostic Materials 14.10: Conclusion and Future Perspectives Glossary Index