Advances in Sustainable Energy: Policy, Materials and Devices

Description

This books provides a comprehensive platform to the scientific, education and research communities working on various fields related to sustainable energy. It covers the exploration, generation and application of this area to meet societal needs as well as addressing global issues related to the environment. The content of this book presents research related to energy and how to tackle climate change as a comprehensive framework based on the success of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The authors use the scientific method to analyze and deliver viable technical solutions, demonstrating how chemistry and engineering can be combined to solve technically challenging problems. While maintaining high scientific rigor, a quantitative approach is offered in select chapters to the study of energy related to our societies increasing need for electrical and chemical energy feedstocks. Preface Contents About the Editors Abbreviations Chapter 1: Promising Clean Energy Development: Practice, Challenges, and Policy Implications 1.1 Fossil Fuels: A Prolog 1.1.1 Life-Cycle Assessment: Common Approaches 1.1.2 Role of Energy Storage 1.2 The Electron Economy 1.2.1 Public Policy and Discourse 1.2.2 The Hydrogen Economy 1.2.3 The Photon Economy 1.2.4 The Circular Economy References Chapter 2: Applications and Fundamentals of Photocatalysis with Solar Energy 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Historical Background 2.3 Applications 2.3.1 Environmental Protection 2.3.2 Clean Energy Production: Water Splitting and Reduction of Carbon Dioxide 2.3.3 Sterilization and Disinfection 2.4 Reaction System of Photocatalysis 2.4.1 Basic Principles of Photocatalysis 2.4.2 Photophysical Properties of the Semiconductor 2.4.3 Band Structure of Semiconductor 2.4.4 Optical Absorption Spectrum of Semiconductor 2.4.5 Emission Spectrum of the Semiconductor: Recombination 2.5 Potential and Charge Distribution Across the Semiconductor-Electrolyte Interface 2.5.1 Fermi Level 2.5.2 Space Charge Layer and Band Bending 2.5.3 Flat-Band Potential 2.5.4 Quasi-Fermi Level 2.5.5 Surface States 2.6 Strategies for Improving the Performance of Photocatalysts 2.6.1 Doping 2.6.2 Heterojunction/Homojunction 2.6.3 Semiconductor-Semiconductor Heterojunction 2.6.4 Metal-Semiconductor (M-S) Heterojunction 2.6.5 Carbon-Semiconductor Heterojunction 2.6.6 Homojunction 2.7 Morphology Control 2.8 Loading Cocatalysts 2.9 Conclusions and Future Trends References Chapter 3: Functional Nucleic Acid Hybrid Materials for Photovoltaic Cells: Design, Fabrication, and Performance 3.1 Introduction to Nucleic Acid Hybrid Materials for Clean Energy 3.2 Optoelectronic Properties of Nucleic Acid 3.2.1 Structure and Conformation 3.2.1.1 Molecular Basis and Double-Helix Structure 3.2.1.2 Higher-Order Structures 3.2.2 Optoelectronic Properties of Nucleic Acid 3.2.2.1 Conductivity, Magnetism, and Spintronics 3.2.2.2 Optical Properties 3.3 Design Principles and Fabrication Techniques 3.3.1 Design Principles 3.3.2 Fabrication Techniques 3.4 Enhancement of Performance 3.5 Summary and Outlook References Chapter 4: First-Principles Calculations for the Interfaces of Perovskite Solar Cells 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Methods 4.3 CH3NH3PbI3 Phase Transformation Under Pressure 4.3.1 Lattice Structures of CH3NH3PbI3 Under Pressure 4.3.2 Projected Band Structures for Three Phases of CH3NH3PbI3 4.3.3 Variation of the Bandgap of CH3NH3PbI3 with Pressure 4.3.4 Optical Properties of CH3NH3PbI3 Under Pressure 4.4 Perovskite Solar Cell Materials Upon Doping: Ag-Doped MAPbI3: MAPb1-xAgxI3 4.4.1 Structural Properties 4.4.2 Electronic Properties 4.4.3 Optical Properties 4.5 Mn-Doped CsPbI2Br: Structural, Electronic, and Optical Properties 4.5.1 Structural Properties 4.5.2 Electronic Properties 4.5.3 Optical Properties 4.6 Surface in Perovskite Solar Cell Materials: PCBM-Adsorbed MAPbI3 Surface 4.6.1 Structure of PCBM-Adsorbed Surface 4.6.2 Adsorption Energy of PCBM on MAPbI3 Surface 4.6.3 Electronic Properties of PCBM-Adsorbed MAPbI3 Surface Model 4.6.4 Optical Absorption Properties of PCBM-Adsorbed MAPbI3 Surface 4.7 PEA+-Adsorbed MAPbI3 Surface 4.7.1 Structure of PEA+-Adsorbed Surface 4.7.2 Adsorption Energy of PEA+ on MAPbI3 Surface 4.7.3 Electronic Properties of PEA+-Adsorbed MAPbI3 Surface Model 4.8 Interfaces in Perovskite Solar Cells Materials: MAPbI3/WZ-ZnO Interface 4.8.1 Interface Structure 4.8.2 Electronic Properties 4.8.3 Optical Properties 4.9 MAPbI3/NiO Interface 4.9.1 Interface Structural 4.9.2 Electronic Properties 4.10 Au/MAPbI3 Interface 4.10.1 Interface Structure 4.10.2 Electronic Properties 4.11 MAPbI3/SnO2 Interface 4.11.1 Interface Structural 4.11.2 Electronic Properties 4.11.3 Optical Properties 4.12 CsPbI3/SnO2 Interface 4.12.1 Interface Structural 4.12.2 Electronic Properties 4.12.3 Optical Properties 4.13 CsPbI2Br/SnO2 Interface 4.13.1 Interface Structure 4.13.2 Electronic Properties 4.14 Conclusions References Chapter 5: Clean Hydrogen Production Technologies 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Hydrogen Production by Methane Reforming Techniques 5.2.1 Steam Reforming of Methane (SRM) 5.2.2 Partial Oxidation of Methane (POM) 5.2.3 Auto-thermal Reforming of Methane (ATR) 5.2.4 Dry Reforming of Methane (DRM) 5.3 Hydrogen Production by Coal and Biomass Gasification Techniques 5.4 Hydrogen Production by Biological Techniques 5.5 Hydrogen Production by Photochemical Techniques 5.6 Hydrogen Production by Electrolysis of Water 5.7 Challenges and Barriers in Hydrogen Production Techniques 5.8 Conclusion References Chapter 6: Thermal Hydrogen Compression Based on Metal Hydride Materials 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Metal Hydrides for Hydrogen Compression Systems 6.2 Metal Hydride-Based Thermal Compressors 6.3 Hybrid Compression Systems 6.4 Techno-Economic Analysis of Metal Hydride Compressors 6.4.1 Metal Hydride Compressor System Techno-Economic Model 6.4.2 Techno-Economic Performance of a Mini-Channel Tube Metal Hydride Compressor 6.5 Conclusions References Chapter 7: Oxygen Reduction Reaction Performed by Ru-Based Catalysts 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Fundamentals of Fuel Cells 7.3 Main Components of a PEM Fuel Cell 7.4 Characteristics of Fuel Cell Discharge Evaluations 7.5 Mechanism of Methanol Oxidation 7.6 The Oxygen Reduction Reaction 7.6.1 Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction 7.7 Experimental 7.7.1 Preparation of the New Ru-Based Catalysts 7.7.2 Electrochemical Characterization 7.7.3 Structural and Morphological Characterization 7.7.4 DMFC Performance Evaluation 7.8 Results and Discussion 7.8.1 Synthesis of the Ru-Based Materials and Their Physical Properties 7.8.2 Structural and Morphological Characterization of the Ru-Based Materials 7.8.3 Electrochemical Study 7.8.4 Cyclic Voltammetry 7.8.5 Linear Sweep Voltammetry (LSV): Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) 7.8.6 Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) in the Presence of Methanol 7.8.7 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Evaluation 7.9 Conclusions References Chapter 8: Direct Catalytic Low-Temperature Conversion of CO2 and Methane to Oxygenates 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Methane and CO2: Major Natural Gas Constituents 8.3 Activation of Methane and CO2: Thermodynamic Challenges 8.4 Oxygenates 8.5 Methane and CO2 to Oxygenates 8.5.1 Role of Oxidizing Agents 8.5.2 O2 as the Oxidizing Agent 8.5.3 NO as an Oxidizing Agent 8.5.4 H2O2 as an Oxidizing Agent 8.5.5 CO2 as an Oxidizing Agent 8.6 Activating Methane with CO2: Thermodynamics 8.7 Metals as Candidate Catalysts 8.8 Oxygenates from CO2 and Methane 8.9 Catalytic Deactivation 8.10 Future Perspectives 8.11 Conclusions References Chapter 9: Heat Transfer Analysis in Solar Thermal Collectors 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Classification of Solar Collectors 9.3 Solar Flat Plate Collectors 9.4 Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETC) 9.5 Solar Concentrating Collectors 9.6 Solar Distillation 9.7 Solar Pond 9.8 Solar Dryer 9.9 Solar Refrigeration System 9.10 Conclusions Nomenclature References Chapter 10: Heat Transfer Fluids in Concentrating Solar Power Systems: Principle and Practice 10.1 Introduction: The Case for Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) 10.2 Why Use CSP to Generate Electricity? 10.3 CSP Engineering Considerations I and Installed Capacity 10.4 Thermodynamic Considerations I 10.5 CSP Engineering Considerations II 10.6 The Effect of Thermodynamic Factors on CSP Performance Efficiency 10.7 Heliostat and Engineering Consideration for Efficient Light Collection 10.8 Molten Salts as Heat Exchangers: An Overview 10.9 Particle Receivers as Heat Exchangers 10.10 Water as a Heat Transfer Fluid 10.11 The Figure of Merit as an Index of Performance Efficiency vs. Effectiveness 10.12 Thermal Oils 10.13 Organic Fluids 10.14 Alkali Molten Salts 10.15 Liquid Metals as Heat Transfer Fluids 10.16 Gases as Heat Transfer Fluids 10.17 Effect of Tube Length, Area, and Pressure on CSP Efficiency 10.18 Effect of Heat Engine Cycle and S-CO2 Parameters on CSP Efficiency 10.19 Conclusions References Chapter 11: Electrocatalysis for the Water Splitting: Recent Strategies for Improving the Performance of Electrocatalyst 11.1 Electrochemical Water Splitting 11.2 Mechanism of Water Splitting 11.2.1 Oxygen Evolution Reaction 11.2.2 Hydrogen Evolution Reaction 11.3 Thermodynamics of Electrochemical Water Splitting 11.3.1 Electrode Reactions 11.4 Electrode Potential and Function of Electrocatalyst 11.5 Function of Electrocatalyst 11.6 Problems Associated with Electrocatalyst 11.7 Possible Strategies to Improve the Performance of Electrocatalyst 11.7.1 Nanostructuring 11.7.2 Self-supported Electrocatalyst 11.7.3 Layered Double Hydroxide Structure 11.7.4 Introduction of Support 11.7.5 Doping of Heteroatom 11.7.6 Multi-metal Electrocatalyst 11.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective References Chapter 12: Future of Electrochemical Energy Storage and Its Impact on the Transition Metals 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Energy Storage Overview 12.3 Electrochemical Energy Storage 12.4 Life-Cycle Impact Analysis of Key Transition Elements 12.4.1 Cobalt 12.4.2 Copper 12.4.3 Lead 12.4.4 Manganese 12.4.5 Nickel 12.4.6 Vanadium 12.4.7 Zinc 12.5 Solar Thermal Processing: Sustainable Future 12.5.1 Zinc 12.6 Recycling End of Life Products - Circular Economy 12.7 Conclusion References Chapter 13: The Application in Energy Storage and Electrocatalyst of Vanadium (Based) Oxides 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Monovalence Vanadium Oxides 13.1.2 V2O5 13.1.3 Lithium-Ion Batteries 13.1.4 Other Metal-Ion Batteries 13.1.5 VO2 13.1.6 Lithium-Ion Batteries 13.1.7 Other Metal-Ion Batteries 13.1.8 V2O3 13.1.9 Lithium-Ion Batteries 13.1.10 Other Metal-Ion Batteries 13.2 Wadsley Phase Vanadium Oxides 13.2.1 V3O7 13.2.2 V6O13 13.3 Vanadium-Based Oxides 13.3.1 Electrocatalysis 13.4 Summary and Outlook References Chapter 14: Water-Stable Metal-Organic Frameworks for Water Adsorption 14.1 Fundamental Basics About Water-Stable MOFs 14.2 Prototypes of Water-Stable MOF Series 14.3 The MIL Series 14.3.1 MIL-53 14.3.2 MIL-100 14.3.3 MIL-101 14.4 The ZIF Series 14.4.1 ZIF-8 14.4.2 ZIF-68 14.4.3 ZIF-69 14.4.4 ZIF-70 14.5 The UiO Series 14.5.1 UiO-66 to UiO-68 14.6 The CAU Series 14.6.1 CAU-3 14.6.2 CAU-10 14.7 The PCN Series 14.7.1 PCN-222/MOF-545 14.7.2 PCN-224 14.7.3 PCN-228-230 14.7.4 PCN-250 14.7.5 PCN-333 14.7.6 PCN-601 14.7.7 PCN-777 14.8 The MOF-800 Series 14.8.1 MOF-801 14.8.2 MOF-841 14.9 Water-Stable MOFs for Water Adsorption 14.10 Early Stage for Structure Characterization 14.11 Investigations of Adsorption and Mechanism 14.12 Development of MOF-Based Device in Practical Applications 14.13 Outlook References Chapter 15: Supercapacitors: History, Theory, Emerging Technologies, and Applications 15.1 Introduction 15.2 The History of Supercapacitors 15.3 Working Principles and Classification 15.3.1 Electric Double-Layer Capacitors (EDLCs) 15.3.2 Pseudocapacitive Supercapacitors (SCs) 15.3.3 Hybrid Supercapacitors (SCs) 15.4 Electrolyte 15.4.1 Aqueous Electrolyte 15.4.2 Organic Electrolyte 15.4.3 Ionic Liquid 15.4.4 (Quasi-)Solid-State Electrolyte 15.5 Carbon Material Electrodes 15.5.1 Activated Carbon (AC) 15.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 15.5.3 Graphene 15.6 Transition Metal Compounds Electrode Materials 15.6.1 Transition Metal Oxides (TMOs) 15.7 Transition Metal Carbides and Nitrides (MXene) 15.8 Other Transition Metal Compounds (Hydroxides, Sulfides, Phosphides, and Selenides) 15.9 Emerging Electrode Materials 15.9.1 Black Phosphorus (BP) 15.9.2 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) 15.9.3 Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) 15.9.4 Conductive Polymers (CPs) 15.10 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Interlayer Structural Engineering of 2D MXene for Electrochemical Energy Storage 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Interlayer Structural Engineering of 2D MXene 16.2.1 Synthesis of MXenes 16.2.2 Layered Structure with an Enlarged Interlayer Spacing 16.3 Interlayer Structural Engineering of 2D MXene for Electrochemical Energy Storage Applications 16.4 Supercapacitors 16.5 Li-ion Batteries/Capacitors 16.6 Na-ion Batteries/Capacitors 16.7 Other Energy Storage Systems 16.8 Conclusions and Perspectives References Chapter 17: The Role of Ex Situ Solid Electrolyte Interphase in Lithium Metal Batteries 17.1 Introduction 17.1.1 Overview 17.1.2 Challenges in Lithium Metal Batteries 17.1.3 Strategies to Revive LMA 17.1.3.1 The Development of 3D Micro-/Nanostructured Li host 17.1.3.2 The Development of Solid-State Electrolyte 17.1.3.3 The Development of Solid Electrolyte Interphase 17.1.4 Ex Situ-Based SEI 17.1.4.1 Physical Deposition 17.1.4.2 Chemical Deposition 17.1.5 SEI Properties and Functionality 17.1.5.1 Thickness 17.1.5.2 Transference Number 17.1.5.3 Young´s Modulus and Flexibility 17.1.5.4 Mixed Ionic/Electronic Conductor 17.1.5.5 Antioxidative 17.1.5.6 Hybrid SEI 17.1.5.7 Lithiophilic 17.1.6 Operation Under Practical Conditions 17.1.7 Conclusion and Outlook References Chapter 18: 3D X-Ray Characterization of Energy Storage and Conversion Devices 18.1 Introduction to X-rays 18.2 X-ray Interactions with Matter 18.2.1 Absorption 18.2.2 Scattering 18.2.3 Elastic Scattering - X-ray Diffraction 18.2.4 Total Attenuation 18.2.5 Refraction 18.2.6 Fluorescence 18.3 X-ray Sources for Characterization 18.3.1 Lab-Based X-ray Sources 18.3.2 Synchrotron Light Sources 18.4 Applications of 3D Imaging 18.4.1 Full-Field Techniques: X-ray Absorption CT 18.4.2 X-ray Phase-Contrast CT 18.4.3 Transmission X-ray Microscopy and Nano-tomography 18.4.4 X-ray Absorption Near-Edge CT 18.4.5 Diffraction Contrast Tomography 18.5 Scanning Probe Techniques 18.5.1 Coherent Diffraction Imaging 18.5.2 Ptychography 18.6 Limitations of X-rays 18.7 Future Potential and Conclusions References Chapter 19: In Situ Transmission Electron Microscopy for Studying Lithium-Ion Batteries 19.1 Overview 19.2 A Brief Introduction of the Lithium-Ion Battery 19.3 Material Characterization of the Li-Ion Battery Cell 19.4 Experimental Setups for In Situ Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 19.4.1 Overview of TEM Methods of Battery Materials 19.4.2 In Situ TEM of Battery Materials 19.4.2.1 Open-Cell Configuration 19.4.2.2 Liquid Chemistry Open Setup 19.4.2.3 Solid Chemistry Open Setup 19.4.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages Between Liquid and Solid Setup 19.4.2.5 Sealed Liquid-Cell Configuration 19.5 Discussion 19.6 Application of In Situ TEM to LIBs 19.6.1 Reactions at the Electrode Interface 19.6.2 Study of Electrode Material Degradation 19.6.3 Intercalation Mechanism 19.6.4 Alloying Mechanism 19.6.5 Conversion Mechanism 19.7 The Beam Effects of In Situ Liquid TEM 19.7.1 Beam Effects in Open-Cell Configurations 19.7.2 Beam Effects in Liquid-Cell Configurations 19.8 Conclusions References Chapter 20: Clean Coal Conversion Processes-The Present and Future Challenges 20.1 Introduction: The Case for Clean Coal 20.2 The Relationship Between Energy Generation and Environmental Pollution 20.3 The Capture of Soluble Oxides of Carbon, Nitrogen, and Sulfur (SONS/SOCNS) Using Lewis Bases 20.4 The Capture of Soluble Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulfur (SONS) Using Lewis Bases: Engineering Considerations 20.5 The Capture of Carbon Dioxide Using Lewis Bases: Energy Considerations 20.6 The Capture of Carbon Dioxide Using Membrane: Engineering Considerations 20.7 The Capture of Carbon Dioxide Using Membrane: Energy Considerations 20.8 Outlook 20.9 Conclusion References Chapter 21: Coal Gasification with Exergy Recuperation and CO2 Recovery 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Coal Gasification 21.3 Gasifying Agents 21.4 Different Types of Gasifier 21.5 Exergy Recuperation 21.6 Carbon Dioxide Recovery in Coal Gasification 21.7 Removal of Sulfur, Nitrogen, and Particulate Matters 21.7.1 Sulfur Removal 21.7.2 Nitrogen Removal 21.7.3 Tar Removal 21.8 Advanced Gasification Systems 21.8.1 IGCC/IGFC System 21.8.2 Advanced IGCC/IGFC Systems with Exergy Recovery 21.8.3 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis System 21.8.4 Urea Synthesis System 21.9 Conclusions and Outlook References Chapter 22: Lignin and Lignocellulosic Materials: A Glance on the Current Opportunities for Energy and Sustainability 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Chapter Taxonomy 22.3 Bioresources: From Biomasses to Advanced Materials 22.4 Lignin 22.4.1 Nature and Chemical Structure 22.4.2 Lignin Processing 22.5 From Basic Material to Multifunctional Applications 22.5.1 Production of Biofuels 22.5.2 Lignin-Based Polymers 22.5.3 Lignin as a Carbon Precursor 22.6 Micro- and Nanoscale Applications 22.7 Summary and Future Perspectives References Chapter 23: Municipal Solid Waste Incineration and Sustainable Development 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Incineration Process 23.3 Environmental Aspects 23.3.1 Air Pollution 23.3.1.1 Pollutants 23.3.1.2 Prevention and Control Systems 23.3.2 Solid Waste Management 23.4 Economic Aspects 23.4.1 Annual Capital Costs 23.4.2 Annual Operational Costs 23.4.3 Revenues 23.4.4 Externalities 23.5 Social Aspects 23.6 Conclusion References Chapter 24: Microbial Fuel Cells: Design and Evaluation of Catalysts and Device 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Synthesis and Characterization of Cathode and Anode Catalysts 24.3 Review of Cathode Materials 24.4 Review of Anode Materials 24.5 Catalyst Synthesis Methods 24.5.1 Solgel Synthesis 24.5.2 Microemulsion Synthesis 24.5.3 Hydrosolvothermal Chemistry 24.5.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition 24.6 Development and Modification of Exchange Membrane 24.6.1 Cation Exchange Membrane (CEM): Synthesis and Characterization 24.6.1.1 Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF): Synthesis and Characterization 24.6.1.2 Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO): Synthesis and Characterization 24.6.1.3 Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM): Synthesis and Characterization 24.6.1.4 Quaternized Polysulfone (QPSU): Synthesis and Characterization 24.6.1.5 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA): Synthesis and Characterization 24.7 Construction and Evaluation of Microbial Fuel Cells 24.7.1 Fundamental Definitions 24.7.2 Effect of Electropolymerization 24.7.3 Effect of Catalyst Modification 24.8 Understanding and Postulations of Electron Transfer Mechanisms 24.8.1 Biofilm Anode and Electron Transfer 24.8.2 Anode Microbiology 24.8.3 Cathode ORR Mechanism 24.9 Conclusion References Chapter 25: Observation on Comprehensive Energy Trend 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Industrial Evolution 25.3 Industry Status 25.4 Trend Observation 25.5 Future Focus 25.6 Conclusions References Chapter 26: Smart Energy Trend Observation 26.1 Smart Energy Trend Observation 26.1.1 Industry Evolution 26.1.2 Industry Status 26.1.2.1 Intellectualized Power Transmission and Distribution 26.1.2.2 Intelligent Power Distribution 26.1.2.3 Intelligent Power Consumption 26.1.2.4 Progress of Demonstration Projects 26.1.3 Smart Technology 26.1.3.1 Power IoT Technology 26.1.3.2 Energy Blockchain Technology 26.1.3.3 Smart Energy Technology 26.1.3.4 Smart Power Plant Technology 26.1.4 Practical Issues 26.1.4.1 Source Network Load Storage Multiphase Coordinated Dispatch Control Project 26.1.4.2 Intelligent Power Distribution House Project 26.1.4.3 Energy Blockchain Project 26.1.4.4 Megacity Grid Energy Internet Demonstration Project 26.1.5 Trend Observation 26.2 Conclusion References Chapter 27: Postface: Conclusion on Renewable Energy Strategies for a Sustainable Future: Part A: Role of Energy Storage 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Renewable Energy 27.3 Electrochemical Energy Storage 27.4 Concluding Remarks 27.5 Description 27.6 Key Features 27.7 Readership References Index