Environmental Biotechnology: Fundamentals to Modern Techniques

Description

This book approaches the topic of environmental biotechnology in a clear, integrated, and meaningful way, covering both the fundamentals and biochemical processes involved, as well as the technologies themselves within different areas of application. As part of the framework, it also provides a thorough description of the pollution and its control, and the role of microorganisms in a wide range of ecosystems and deterioration processes. Features Focuses on the role of microorganisms in a wide range of ecosystems and deterioration processes. Explains underlying concepts of environment, interlinks them from an ecological point of view, and describes the approaches for waste treatment. Describes the concepts and fate processes of environmental contaminants, contaminant patterns in soil, groundwater, and surface water. Includes novel research findings and applications of biosurfactants. Discusses biodegradation as a key process in the bioremediation of recalcitrant compounds. This book is aimed at Primarily Senior Undergraduates including Graduate Students and Researchers in Biotechnology, Environmental Science/Engineering, Conservation Biology, Microbiology, Waste Management, and Ecology. Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Preface PART I: Biogeochemical Cycles, Pollution and Pollution Control Chapter 1 Biogeochemical Cycles Carbon Cycle Carbon Reservoirs Carbon Fixation and Energy Flow Carbon Respiration Organic Polymers Carbohydrate-Based Polymers Lignin Humus Methane Methanogenesis Methane Oxidation Carbon Monoxide and Other C[sub(1)] Compounds Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen Reservoirs Nitrogen Fixation Ammonia Assimilation (Immobilization) and Ammonification (Mineralization) Ammonia Assimilation (Immobilization) Ammonification (Mineralization) Ammonium Oxidation Nitrification Anammox Nitrate Reduction Assimilatory Nitrate Reduction Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction to Ammonium Denitrification Sulfur Cycle Sulfur Reservoirs Assimilatory Sulfate Reduction and Sulfur Mineralization Processing of Sulfate for Uptake into Bacteria Sulfur Oxidation Chemoautotrophic Sulfur Oxidation Photoautotrophic Sulfur Oxidation Sulfur Reduction Iron Cycle Iron Reservoirs Iron in Soils and Sediments Iron in Marine Environments Iron Oxidation Chemoautotrophs Photoautotrophs Iron Reduction Cycling of Manganese and Selenium Cycling of Hydrogen Transformation of Mercury References Chapter 2 Water Pollution Sources and Effects of Water Pollutants The Environmental Requirements of Aquatic Organisms Organic Pollution Nutrient Pollution Eutrophication Thermal Pollution Heavy Metals Ammonia, Cyanides, and Phenols Pesticides Suspended Solids Extreme pH and Acidification Detergents Oil and Petroleum Products The Toxicity of Pollutants to Aquatic Organisms Bioaccumulation Water Pollution and Public Health Water Pollution and Pathogens Bacterial Pathogens Viral Pathogens Parasitic Infections Further Reading Chapter 3 Soil Pollution Pollutants of Agrochemical Sources Insecticides Organochlorines Carbamates Natural and Synthetic Pyrethroids Herbicides Organochlorine Compounds Organophosphorus Herbicides Triazine Derivatives Pyridine Derivatives Aliphatic Compounds Fungicides Inorganic and Organic Compounds of Heavy Metals Derivatives of Phthalic Acid Benzimidazole Derivatives of Barbituric Acid Fuel Spills in Farms Soil Pollutants of Urban Sources Power Generation Emissions Soil Pollution Through Transport Activities Soil Pollution by Waste and Sewage Sludge Pollution Mechanisms and Soil–Pollutants Interaction Physical Processes and Mechanisms of Pollution Adsorptive Retention Chemical Adsorption or Chemisorption Factors Affecting Adsorption Mineralogical Composition of the Soil Soil Matrix (Grain Size Distribution) Humic Substances and Their Distribution in the Soil Chemical and Physical Properties of the Soil Solution The Pollutants, Their Nature, and Chemical Constitution Non-Adsorptive Retention Trapping Caking Straining Physical–Chemical Trapping Precipitation Infiltration Further Reading Chapter 4 Air Pollution The Evolution of the Atmosphere Atmospheric Pressure and Temperature The Layers of the Atmosphere Air Pollution Gases Needed for Biological Processes Ozone for Protection From Ultraviolet Radiation A Reservoir for Water Greenhouse Gases for Insulation Particulates for Condensation Air Pollutants and Air Pollution Pollutants From Fossil Fuels Pollutants From Secondary Chemical Reactions Pollutants From Biomass Burning Volatile Organic Compounds Air Pollution and the Environment External Factors That Affect Air Quality The Effects of Particulates on the Environment The Effects of Ozone on the Environment Air Pollution and Human Health Metal Poisoning Asthma Lung Cancer Premature Deaths Acid Rain The Effects of Acid Rain Acid Rain and Freshwater Ecosystems The Effects of Acid Rain on Forests and Agriculture Acid Destruction of Cultural Materials Reducing Acid Rain Damage Further Reading PART II: Bioremediation Chapter 5 Ex Situ Bioremediation Technologies Biopiles Biopile Components Biopile Base Aeration System Covers Irrigation Systems Biopile Formation Windrow Composting Windrow Components Windrow Forming and Turning In-Vessel Composting Landfarming Landfarm Design Landfarm Base Perimeter Dike Landfarm Operation Irrigation Nutrient Addition Aeration Soil Slurry Reactors In Situ Bioremediation Technologies Bioventing Contaminants Biodegraded by Bioventing Bioventing Design Permeability: Gas and Vapor Transfer Contaminant Distribution Airflow Systems Biosparging Contaminants Treated by Biosparging Biosparging Design Permeability Airflow Systems Well Design and Construction Number and Spacing of Wells Nutrient Delivery Permeable Reactive Barriers PRB Design Bioslurping Bioaugmentation Selection of Additional Traits Plant-Associated Strain Selection and Delivery Adaptation of Strains: Value of Priming or Activation Bioaugmentation with GMOs Novel Delivery Systems Biostimulation Oxygen Oxygen Availability and Transport Convective Air Movement Oxygen Delivery to Groundwater Oleophilic Fertilizer Application of Nutrients Co-metabolism and Alternative Electron Donors Further Reading Chapter 6 Decomposition of Plant Cell Wall Structures Protopectinase and Pectinase Activities Degradation of Hemicellulose Lignin Structure Lignin-Degrading Microorganisms Bacterial Degradation Fungal Degradation Ecology of Fungal Lignocellulose Degradation Fungal Leaf Litter Decay Fungal Ligninolytic Mechanisms Lignin Peroxidases Manganese Peroxidases Co-Oxidation of Lignin via Production of Oxyradicals Laccases Peroxide-Producing Enzymes Detection of Ligninolytic Enzymes in Complex Substrates Enzymatic Degradation of Cellulose Starch Hydrolysis Inulin Hydrolysis Decomposition of Diverse Biopolymers Including Animal Fibrous Proteins Chitin Digestion Decomposition of Keratin Fibroin Decomposition Collagen Breakdown Further Reading Chapter 7 Microorganisms and Metal Pollutants Cause for Concern Metal Pollution Anthropogenic Sources Natural Sources Microbial Metal Transformations Oxidation-Reduction Methylation Physicochemical Methods of Metal Remediation Microbial Approaches in the Remediation of Metal-Contaminated Soils and Sediments Microbial Approaches in the Remediation of Metal-Contaminated Aquatic Systems Further Reading Chapter 8 Bioleaching Principles of Microbial Metal Leaching Leaching Mechanisms Models of Leaching Mechanisms Factors Influencing Bioleaching Nutrients O[sub(2)] and CO[sub(2)] pH Pulp Density Temperature Mineral Substrate Heavy Metals Surfactants and Organic Extractants Leaching Techniques In Vitro Methods Percolator Leaching Submerged Leaching Column Leaching Industrial Leaching Processes Dump Leaching Heap Leaching Underground Leaching Tank Leaching In Situ Bioleaching Bacterial Attachment on Mineral Surfaces Copper Bioleaching Uranium Bioleaching Gold Bioleaching Biooxidation in Heaps Biooxidation with Stirred Tanks Biooxidation with Thin Layer Technology (Coating) Microbes Involved in Gold Bioleaching Leaching of Metals with Fungi Comparison to Thiobacillus spp Fungal Metabolism Abiotic Reactions Fungal Leaching Techniques Further Reading Chapter 9 Microorganisms and Organic Pollutants Introduction The Overall Process of Biodegradation Contaminant Structure, Toxicity, and Biodegradability Genetic Potential Toxicity Bioavailability Contaminant Structure Steric Effects Electronic Effects Environmental Factors Affecting Biodegradation Redox Conditions Organic Matter Content Nitrogen Other Environmental Factors Temperature pH Salinity Water Activity Bioremediation Addition of Oxygen or Other Gases Nutrient Addition Sequential Anaerobic-Aerobic Degradation Addition of Surfactants Addition of Microorganisms or DNA Biodegradation of Organic Pollutants Aliphatics Alkanes Aerobic Conditions Anaerobic Conditions Halogenated Aliphatics Aerobic Conditions Anaerobic Conditions Alicyclics Aerobic Conditions Anaerobic Conditions Aromatics Unsubstituted Aromatics Aerobic Conditions Anaerobic Conditions Substituted Aromatics Dioxins and PCBs Heterocyclic Compounds Pesticides Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons Toxicity, Sources of Contamination, and Legal Dispositions Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons as Long-Term Contaminants PAHs-Degrading Microorganisms Bacterial PAH Degradation Pathways Aromatic Hydrocarbons Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons Biodegradation of Hydrocarbons Alkanes Further Reading Chapter 10 Biodegradation of Petroleum and Petroleum Products Biodegradation of Petroleum Effects of Biodegradation Conditions for Biodegradation Factors Affecting Biodegradation of Petroleum Effect of Nutrients Effect of Temperature Effect of Dispersants Rates of Oil Biodegradation Effect of Weathering Biodegradation of Naphtha and Gasoline Remediation Site Remediation In Situ Air Stripping Pump-and-Treat Systems Vacuum-Enhanced Recovery Single-Phase Vacuum Extraction Dual-Phase Vacuum Extraction Surfactant-Enhanced Aquifer Redemption In Situ-Enhanced Bioremediation Biodegradation of Kerosene and Diesel Bioremediation Diesel Fuel Biodegradation of Fuel Oil Biodegradation of Lubricating Oil Biodegradation of Residua and Asphalt Further Reading Chapter 11 Microbial Degradation of Chlorinated Aromatic Compounds Degradation of Chlorocatechols via the Modified Ortho-Cleavage Pathway Degradation of Chlorocatechols via the Meta-Cleavage Pathway Problems with the Meta-Cleavage Pathway in the Case of Chloroaromatics Productive Use of the Meta-Cleavage Pathway for Chlorinated Catechols Substituted in Para-Position Productive Degradation of 3-Chlorocatechol via the Meta-Cleavage Pathway Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Biological Transformation of PCBs Degradation of PCB by Microorganisms Anaerobic PCB Dechlorination Aerobic Biodegradation of PCB Biodegradation of Pesticides Three Major Groups of Conventional Pesticides Fate of Pesticides in the Environment Pesticide Toxicity Enzymes Involved in Pesticide Biodegradation Hydrolases Phosphotriesterases (PTEs) Esterases Oxidoreductases Mixed Function Oxidases (MFOs) Glutathione S-Transferase (GST) Biodegradation of Pesticides Phenoxyacetic Acid: 2,4-D A s-Triazine: Atrazine The N-Dealkylation Dead-End Cytochrome P[sub(450)] Pathway The Mineralization Pathway A Carbamate Pesticide: Carbofuran Biodegradation of Explosives Further Reading Chapter 12 Biodegradation of Azo Dyes Acid Dyes Direct Dyes Reactive Dyes Disperse Dyes Toxicity Caused by Azo Dyes Fungal Degradation of Dyes Enzymes of White-Rot Fungi Involved in Azo Dye Decolorization Dye Degradation by Immobilized Fungi Degradation of Dyes by Yeasts Further Reading Chapter 13 Biosurfactants Enhancing Bioavailability Synthetic Surfactants and Bioremediation A Potential Role for Biosurfactants Types of Biosurfactants Biosurfactants and Alkane Metabolism Properties of Biosurfactants Surface and Interfacial Activity Temperature, pH, and Ionic Strength Tolerance Biodegradability Emulsion Forming and Emulsion Breaking Chemical Diversity Low Toxicity Potential Applications of Biosurfactants Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR) Hydrocarbon Degradation Hydrocarbon Degradation in Soil Environment Hydrocarbon Degradation in Aquatic Environment Biosurfactant and HCH Degradation Further Reading Chapter 14 Biosensors as Environmental Monitors Enzyme-Based Biosensors Whole Cell-Based Biosensors Antibody-Based Biosensors (Immunosensors) DNA-Based Biosensors BioMEMs, Biomimetics, and Other Emerging Biosensor Technologies Further Reading PART III: Wastes and Waste Management Chapter 15 Domestic Wastewater Treatment Wastewater Storm Water Urban Systems Industrial Systems Agricultural Systems Wastewater Treatment Primary Treatment Primary Sedimentation Secondary Treatment of Sewage Aerobic Breakdown of Raw Wastewaters The Activated Sludge System Microbiology of the Activated Sludge Process Bulking in Activated Sludge Systems Nutrition of Organisms in the Activated Sludge Process Modifications of the Activated Sludge System Efficiency of Activated Sludge Treatments The Trickling Filter Microbiology of the Trickling Filter Rotating Disks Oxidation Ponds Microbiology of the Oxidation Pond Anaerobic Sewage Systems Treatment of the Sludge From Aerobic Sewage Treatment Systems The Septic Tank The Imhoff Tank Cesspools Tertiary Treatment Removal of Pathogens by Sewage Treatment Processes Removal of Organics and Inorganics by Sewage Treatment Processes Sludge Processing Primary Sludge Treatment Stabilization Technologies Aerobic Digestion Anaerobic Digestion Sludge Processing to Produce Class A Biosolids Composting Lime and Heat Treatment Lagoons Further Reading Chapter 16 Wastewater From Food Industries Wastewater Composition and Treatment Strategies in the Food Processing Industry Sugar Factories Starch Factories Vegetable Oil and Shortening Production Potato Processing Industry Slaughterhouses Dairy Industry Fruit Juice and Beverage Industry Breweries Distilleries Further Reading Chapter 17 Solid Waste Management Solid Wastes Solid Waste Characteristics Municipal Solid Wastes Industrial Solid Wastes Construction and Demolition Solid Wastes Street Sweepings Water and Wastewater Sludges Automotive Solid Wastes Bulky Solid Wastes Trees Agricultural Solid Wastes Mining Solid Wastes Processing Solid Wastes Sanitary Landfills Basic Concepts Biological Activity Stimulating Bacterial Activity Gas Production Nutrient Deficient Further Reading Chapter 18 E-Waste Management E-Waste Materials Used in Electronics Lead Brominated Flame Retardants Cadmium, Mercury, and Hexavalent Chromium Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Components Mobile Phones Televisions Washing Machines WEEE Management Processing Techniques Mechanical Processing Hydrometallurgy Biotechnology Electrometallurgy Pyrometallurgy Recycling of E-Wastes Further Reading Chapter 19 Industrial Waste Management Major Forms of Industrial Wastes Treatment and Disposal of Industrial Wastes Gas and Particulate Emissions Chemical Precipitation Flocculation, Coagulation, Dewatering–Filtration–Decanting–Drying Stabilization (Neutralization) and Solidification Oxidation Landfilling Landfarming of Refinery Sludges and Oilfield Wastes Deep-Well Injection of Liquid Wastes Incineration Stockpiling, Tailings, and Muds Reuse of Industrial Wastes Metals Recovery Energy Recovery Industrial Waste Solvents Industrial Waste Reuse Further Reading Chapter 20 Composting of Organic Wastes Waste Materials for Composting Fundamentals of Composting Process Composting Technologies Factors Affecting Efficient Composting Composting Systems Non-Reactor Composting Reactor Composting Compost Quality Further Reading Chapter 21 Vermicomposting Earthworms and Soil Fertility Soil Formation Earthworms in Waste Management Breakdown of Sewage Wastes by Earthworms Earthworm Species Used in Vermicomposting Eisenia Fetida (Savigny) and Eisenia Andrei, Bouché Eudrilus Eugeniae (Kinberg) Perionyx Excavatus (Perrier) Dendrobaena Veneta (Rosa) Polypheretima Elongata (Erseus) Lumbricus Rubellus (Hoffmeister) Methods of Processing Organic Wastes with Earthworms Windrow Vermicomposting Can Be Carried Out in a Number of Different Ways Static Pile Windrows (Batch) Top-Fed Windrows (Continuous Flow) Wedges (Continuous Flow) Beds or Bins Flow-Through Reactors Methods of Harvesting Worms Manual Methods Self-Harvesting (Migration) Methods Mechanical Methods Vermicompost Tea Further Reading Chapter 22 Biogas Production Advantages of Biogas Anaerobic Digestion (AD) Substrates for Biogas Production Biogas Plant Components Biogas Formation Biology of Biogas Production Hydrolysis Acidogenic Phase Acetogenic Phase Methanogenic Phase Factors Influencing Anaerobic Digestion Process Temperature pH Values and Optimum Intervals Volatile Fatty Acids (VFAs) Ammonia Macro- and Micronutrients (Trace Elements) and Toxic Compounds Further Reading Index