PET/MR: Functional and Molecular Imaging of Neurological Diseases and Neurosciences

Description

This book aims to summarize the research progress of integrated PET/MR brain function and molecular imaging, and more importantly, clinical application and research status of PET/MR of brain imaging from brain diseases to brain science. Starting from the overviews of brain function imaging technology, following chapters introduces clinical application of integrated PET/MR specific brain diseases in details, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and brain tumor, etc., which are hot issues of brain science research. It will be a useful reference to residents and practitioners in nuclear medicine, radiology, and neurology, as well as those interested in molecular imaging of brain. Preface Preface Contents About the Editors 1: Introduction to Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance (PET/MR) Imaging 1.1 History of PET/MR 1.2 PET/MR Equipment 1.2.1 Components of the Integrated PET/MR System 1.2.2 Hardware Compatibility 1.2.3 Principles of PET/MR Imaging 1.2.3.1 Principles of PET Imaging 1.2.3.2 Principles of MR Imaging 1.2.3.3 Attenuation Correction Technology 1.3 PET/MR Scan Protocols 1.3.1 Pre-Scan Preparation 1.3.2 PET/MR Data Acquisition 1.3.2.1 Scanning Coils and Body Positions for Integrated PET/ MR 1.3.2.2 PET Scan Parameters 1.3.2.3 MRI Scan Parameters Suggested Readings 2: Research Applications of PET Imaging in Neuroscience 2.1 Principles of PET Imaging 2.1.1 Physical Principles of PET Imaging 2.1.2 PET Scanning System 2.1.2.1 Gantry Detector Scintillation Detectors Semiconductor Detectors 2.1.3 PET Image Acquisition 2.1.3.1 Emission Scanning 2D and 3D Acquisition Static and Dynamic Acquisition Gated Acquisition Local and Whole-Body Acquisition 2.1.3.2 Transmission Scanning 2.1.4 PET Image Reconstruction 2.1.4.1 Analytical Methods 2.1.4.2 Iterative Methods 2.1.4.3 Deep Learning Algorithms 2.1.5 Data Correction 2.1.5.1 Detector Normalization 2.1.5.2 Radionuclide Decay Correction 2.1.5.3 Tissue Attenuation Correction 2.1.5.4 Random Coincidence Correction 2.1.5.5 Scatter Correction 2.1.5.6 Dead-Time Correction 2.1.6 Performance Evaluation of PET Systems 2.1.6.1 Energy Resolution 2.1.6.2 Spatial Resolution 2.1.6.3 Temporal Resolution 2.1.6.4 Noise Equivalent Count Rate 2.1.6.5 System Sensitivity 2.1.6.6 Maximum Count Rate 2.2 Post-processing of PET Data 2.2.1 Image Pre-Processing 2.2.1.1 Head Motion Correction 2.2.1.2 Registration 2.2.1.3 Partial Volume Correction MG Method ROI-Based PVC 2.2.1.4 Spatial Normalization 2.2.1.5 Smoothing 2.2.2 Quantitative Analysis 2.2.2.1 Absolute Quantitative Analysis 2.2.2.2 Semi-Quantitative Analysis 2.2.3 SPM 2.2.4 Other Methods of Image Analysis 2.2.4.1 Spatial Covariance Analysis 2.2.4.2 Metabolic Brain Network Analysis 2.3 Research Applications of PET Imaging in Neuroscience 2.3.1 Dementia 2.3.1.1 18F-FDG PET 2.3.1.2 Aβ PET 2.3.1.3 Tau PET 2.3.2 Movement Disorders 2.3.2.1 Dopaminergic Imaging 2.3.2.2 18F-FDG PET 2.3.2.3 Molecular Pathology Imaging 2.3.3 Epilepsy 2.3.3.1 18F-FDG PET 2.3.3.2 Neuroreceptor Imaging 2.3.3.3 Other PET Imaging Methods Suggested Readings 3: Research Applications of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) in Neuroscience 3.1 Principles of Blood Oxygen Level-Dependent (BOLD) Imaging 3.1.1 Overview of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) 3.1.2 Principles of BOLD-fMRI 3.1.3 Applications of BOLD-fMRI 3.2 Post-Processing of BOLD Data 3.2.1 Pre-Processing of BOLD-fMRI Data 3.2.1.1 Removal of Images from the First Few Time Points 3.2.1.2 Slice Timing Correction (STC) 3.2.1.3 Motion Correction (MC) 3.2.1.4 Registration 3.2.1.5 Segmentation 3.2.1.6 Filtering 3.2.1.7 Covariate Regression 3.2.1.8 Spatial Smoothing 3.2.2 Statistical Analysis of BOLD-fMRI Data 3.2.2.1 General Linear Model (GLM) 3.2.2.2 Deconvolution Model 3.2.2.3 Functional Connectivity Basic Definition of Functional Connectivity 3.2.2.4 Common Steps in Functional Connectivity Analysis Data Pre-Processing ROI Selection Correlation Analysis 3.2.2.5 Independent Component Analysis (ICA) 3.2.2.6 Graph Theory Analysis 3.2.2.7 Algorithms for State-Related fMRI Time-Series Analysis Based on Change-Point Theory 3.2.2.8 Algorithms for Multi-Voxel Pattern Analysis 3.2.3 Software Related to BOLD Data Processing 3.2.3.1 SPM 3.2.3.2 Motion Correction 3.2.3.3 Image Registration 3.2.3.4 Spatial Smoothing 3.2.3.5 FMRIB Software Library (FSL) 3.2.3.6 DPABI/Data Processing Assistant for Resting-State fMRI (DPARSF) 3.2.3.7 Analysis of Functional NeuroImages (AFNI) 3.2.3.8 FreeSurfer 3.3 Research Applications of BOLD Imaging in Neuroscience 3.3.1 Research Applications of BOLD-fMRI in Perceptual Mechanisms 3.3.1.1 Audition 3.3.1.2 Vision 3.3.1.3 Pain 3.3.2 Research Applications of BOLD-fMRI in the Mechanisms of Working Memory 3.3.3 Research Applications of BOLD-fMRI in the Mechanism of Executive Function 3.3.4 Research Applications of BOLD-fMRI in the Mechanisms of Language 3.3.5 Research Applications of BOLD-fMRI in the Mechanisms of Attention 3.3.6 Research Applications of BOLD-fMRI in the Mechanisms of Numerical Cognition Suggested Readings 4: Research Applications of Cerebral Perfusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in Neuroscience 4.1 Principles of Perfusion MRI 4.1.1 Overview of Perfusion MRI 4.1.2 Principles of DSC Imaging 4.1.3 Principles of DCE Imaging 4.1.4 Principles of ASL Imaging 4.1.4.1 CASL Perfusion MRI 4.1.4.2 PASL Perfusion MRI 4.1.4.3 pCASL Perfusion MRI 4.1.4.4 tASL Perfusion MRI 4.2 Post-Processing of Perfusion MRI Data 4.2.1 Overview of ASL 4.2.2 Computation of ASL Perfusion-Weighted Maps and Quantitative CBF Maps 4.2.3 Post-Processing of ASL Data 4.3 Research Applications of Perfusion MRI in Neuroscience 4.3.1 DSC Imaging 4.3.2 ASL Imaging 4.3.2.1 Advantages of ASL Imaging in Neuroscience 4.3.2.2 Research Applications of ASL Imaging in Neurodevelopment 4.3.2.3 Research Applications of ASL Imaging in Pharmacology 4.3.2.4 Research Applications of ASL Imaging in Neuropsychiatry Suggested Readings 5: Radiotracers for PET Imaging of the Brain 5.1 PET Radiotracers for Brain Tumors 5.1.1 PET Radiotracers for Glucose Metabolism 5.1.2 PET Radiotracers for Amino Acid Metabolism 5.1.3 PET Radiotracers for Cell Proliferation 5.1.4 PET Radiotracers for Hypoxia 5.1.5 Other PET Radiotracers for Brain Tumors 5.2 PET Radiotracers for Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) 5.2.1 PET Radiotracers for Aβ 5.2.2 PET Radiotracers for Tau Proteins 5.2.3 PET Radiotracers for α-Synuclein 5.2.4 PET Radiotracers for the Cholinergic System 5.3 PET Radiotracers for Parkinson’s Disease (PD) 5.3.1 PET Radiotracers for the Dopaminergic System 5.3.2 PET Radiotracers for the Serotonergic System 5.3.3 Other Targeted PET Radiotracers 5.4 PET Radiotracers for Epilepsy 5.4.1 PET Radiotracers for γ-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) 5.4.2 PET Radiotracers for Glutamate 5.4.3 PET Radiotracers for Synaptic Vesicle Glycoprotein 2A (SV2A) 5.5 PET Radiotracers for Depression 5.5.1 PET Radiotracers for SERT 5.5.2 PET Radiotracers for the Serotonin 1A (5-HT1A) Receptor 5.6 PET Radiotracers for Neuroinflammation 5.6.1 PET Radiotracers for the 18 kD Translocator Protein (TSPO) 5.6.2 Other Targeted PET Radiotracers 5.7 Summary Suggested Readings 6: Research Applications of Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance (PET/MR) Imaging in Neurosurgery 6.1 Multimodal Image-Guided Neurosurgery 6.1.1 Combined MRI and Neuronavigation Techniques 6.1.2 Combined Application of Multimodal Imaging Data and Neuronavigation 6.2 Applications of PET Imaging in Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) and Stereoelectroencephalo 6.2.1 Applications of PET Molecular Imaging in DBS 6.2.1.1 DBS and Molecular Imaging in Parkinson’s Disease (PD) Impact of DBS on Brain Metabolism Impact of DBS on the Dopaminergic System Impact of DBS on the Motor Cortex DBS and Language in PD DBS and Behavior and Cognition in PD 6.2.1.2 DBS and Molecular Imaging in Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) Fornix Column DBS NBM-DBS 6.2.2 Applications of PET Imaging in SEEG 6.3 Applications of PET Imaging in Radiotherapy and Stereotactic Biopsy 6.3.1 PET-Guided Radiotherapy 6.3.2 PET-Guided GKR 6.3.3 PET-Guided Stereotactic Biopsy Suggested Readings 7: Research Applications of Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance (PET/MR) Imaging in the Brain Mechanisms of Acupuncture 7.1 Acupuncture, Neurological Diseases, and Neurosciences 7.1.1 Research on the Mechanisms of Acupuncture Treatment for Cerebral Infarction 7.1.2 Research on the Mechanisms of Acupuncture Treatment for Insomnia 7.1.3 Research on the Mechanisms of Acupuncture Treatment for Depression 7.1.4 Research on the Mechanisms of Acupuncture Treatment for AD 7.1.5 Research on the Mechanisms of Acupuncture Treatment for VD 7.1.6 Research on the Mechanisms of Acupuncture Treatment for PD 7.1.7 Future Prospects 7.2 Research Applications of MRI in the Brain Mechanisms of Acupuncture 7.2.1 Acupoint Specificity of Brain Responses 7.2.1.1 Research on the Characteristics of Brain Responses to Single-Acupoint Stimulation 7.2.1.2 fMRI Research on the Brain Responses to Multi-Acupoint Stimulation Brain fMRI Research on the Siguan Acupoints Brain fMRI Research on the Dazhong-Taixi Acupoint Combination 7.2.2 Deqi Sensation in Acupuncture 7.2.2.1 Functional Brain Imaging of Deqi 7.2.2.2 Differences in Functional Brain Imaging between Deqi and Sharp Pain 7.2.3 Acupuncture-Induced Analgesia 7.2.3.1 Brain Areas and Networks Related to Acupuncture-Induced Analgesia 7.2.3.2 Acupuncture Treatment for Low Back Pain 7.2.3.3 fMRI Research on the Neural Mechanisms of Acupuncture Treatment for CTS 7.2.4 Acupuncture Treatment for Depression 7.2.5 Acupuncture Treatment for Facial Palsy 7.2.6 Acupuncture Treatment for AD 7.2.7 Acupuncture Treatment for Functional Dyspepsia (FD) 7.2.7.1 Research on the Pathological Alterations of Brain Function in FD Patients 7.2.7.2 Research on the Central Mechanism of Acupuncture Treatment for FD 7.2.7.3 Research on the Factors Influencing the Gastrointestinal Regulatory Effects of Acupuncture 7.2.8 Acupuncture Treatment for Crohn’s Disease (CD) 7.3 Research Applications of PET Imaging in the Brain Mechanisms of Acupuncture 7.3.1 Applications of PET Imaging in Experimental Acupuncture Research 7.3.2 Applications of PET/CT in Clinical Acupuncture Research 7.3.2.1 PET/CT Imaging Research on the Brain Responses to Acupuncture under Normal Physiological Conditions Application of PET in Clinical Research on Single-Point Acupuncture PET Imaging Research on the Brain Responses to Multi-Point Acupuncture under Normal Physiological Conditions 7.3.2.2 PET/CT Imaging Research on the Brain Responses to Acupuncture under Pathological Conditions Vascular Dementia Ischemic Stroke Other Neurological Diseases 7.3.3 Summary 7.4 Research Applications of PET/MR in the Brain Mechanisms of Acupuncture 7.4.1 Advances in Neuroimaging Research on the Brain Mechanisms of Acupuncture 7.4.2 Advantages of Multimodal Imaging Techniques in Research on the Brain Mechanisms of Acupuncture Suggested Readings 8: Research Applications of Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance (PET/MR) Imaging in Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) 8.1 Research Applications of MRI in AD 8.1.1 Research Applications of Structural MRI in AD 8.1.2 Research Applications of DTI in AD 8.1.3 Research Applications of ASL in AD 8.1.4 Research Applications of MRS in AD 8.1.5 Research Applications of fMRI in AD 8.2 Research Applications of PET Imaging in AD 8.2.1 Research Applications of 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) PET Imaging in AD 8.2.2 Research Applications of Aβ PET Imaging in AD 8.2.3 Research Applications of Tau Protein PET Imaging in AD 8.2.4 Research Applications of Cholinergic PET Imaging in AD 8.3 Research Applications of PET/MR in AD 8.3.1 Research Applications of the Relationship Between Glucose Metabolism and Brain Function in AD 8.3.2 Research Applications of the Relationship Between Glucose Metabolism and Cerebral Perfusion in AD Suggested Readings 9: Research Applications of Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance (PET/MR) Imaging in Parkinson’s Disease (PD) 9.1 Research Applications of MRI in PD 9.1.1 Research Applications of Structural MRI in PD 9.1.1.1 Research Applications of VBM Analysis in PD 9.1.1.2 Research Applications of SWI and QSM in PD 9.1.1.3 Research Applications of DTI in PD 9.1.2 Research Applications of ASL in PD 9.1.3 Research Applications of BOLD-fMRI in PD 9.1.3.1 Research on Basal Ganglia Circuitry in PD 9.1.3.2 Research on the Neural Mechanisms of Clinical Symptoms in PD 9.2 Research Applications of PET Imaging in PD 9.2.1 PD and Atypical Parkinsonian Syndromes 9.2.2 PET Imaging Methods and their Clinical Value 9.2.2.1 PET Imaging of the Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic Neurotransmission System 9.2.2.2 PET Imaging of Brain Glucose Metabolism 9.2.2.3 Comparison of Brain PET Image Analysis Methods 9.2.2.4 Establishment of a Normative Database for Brain 18F-FDG PET Imaging 9.2.3 Differential Diagnosis 9.2.3.1 PET Imaging Techniques for MSA 9.2.3.2 PET Imaging Techniques for PSP 9.2.3.3 PET/CT Imaging Techniques for CBD 9.2.3.4 Key Elements of Differential Diagnosis Based on PET Imaging 9.3 Research Applications of PET/MR in PD 9.3.1 Association between MRI Brain Structure and PET Glucose Metabolic Patterns in PD 9.3.1.1 Research Applications of the Relationship between Brain Volume Changes and Abnormal Glucose Metabolism in PD 9.3.1.2 Research Applications of the Relationship between Neuromelanin Reduction and Specific DAT Tracer Uptake in PD 9.3.1.3 Research Applications of the Relationship among Brain Iron Deposition, Glucose Metabolism, and Impaired Dopaminergic Neuronal Function in PD 9.3.2 Association between MRI Brain Function and PET Glucose Metabolic Patterns in PD 9.3.2.1 Research Applications of the Relationship between RS-fMRI and Glucose Metabolism 9.3.2.2 Research Applications of the Relationship between ASL CBF and Glucose Metabolism in PD 9.3.3 Research Applications in the Differential Diagnosis and Treatment of PD 9.3.3.1 Differential Diagnosis of PD and Other Parkinsonian Syndromes 9.3.3.2 Efficacy Evaluation in PD 9.3.3.3 Basic Research and Drug Testing in PD Suggested Reading 10: Research Applications of Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance (PET/MR) Imaging in Epilepsy 10.1 Research Applications of MRI in Epilepsy 10.1.1 Research Applications of sMRI in Refractory Epilepsy 10.1.2 Research Applications of DTI in Refractory Epilepsy 10.1.3 Research Applications of MRS in Refractory Epilepsy 10.1.4 Research Applications of ASL in Refractory Epilepsy 10.1.5 Research Applications of Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent (BOLD) Imaging in Refractory Epilepsy 10.1.5.1 Research Applications of Task-Based fMRI in Epilepsy 10.1.5.2 Applications of RS-fMRI in Epilepsy 10.2 Research Applications of PET Imaging in Epilepsy 10.2.1 PET Findings of Epilepsy 10.2.2 Research Applications of PET in the Pre-Surgical Localization of Epilepsy 10.2.3 Research Applications of PET in the Prognostic Evaluation of Epilepsy Surgery 10.2.4 Others 10.3 Research Applications of PET/MR in Epilepsy 10.3.1 Application of Integrated PET/MR in Epilepsy Surgery 10.3.2 Research Applications of Integrated PET/MR on the Brain Network Mechanisms of Epilepsy Suggested Reading 11: Research Applications of Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance (PET/MR) Imaging in Brain Tumors 11.1 Research Applications of MRI in Brain Tumors 11.1.1 Research Applications of DWI in Brain Tumors 11.1.2 Research Applications of DTI in Brain Tumors 11.1.3 Research Applications of PWI in Brain Tumors 11.1.4 Research Applications of Proton MRS in Brain Tumors 11.1.5 Research Applications of SWI in Brain Tumors 11.1.6 Research Applications of fMRI in Brain Tumors 11.2 Research Applications of PET Imaging in Brain Tumors 11.2.1 Common PET Imaging Agents 11.2.1.1 Glucose Metabolism 11.2.1.2 Amino Acids and Choline 11.2.1.3 Cell Proliferation 11.2.1.4 Others 11.2.2 Applications of PET in Brain Tumors 11.2.2.1 Glioma 11.2.2.2 Intracranial Lymphoma 11.2.2.3 Brain Metastasis 11.3 Research Applications of PET/MR in Brain Tumors 11.3.1 Advantages of Integrated PET/MR over Conventional Equipment 11.3.2 Clinical Applications of Integrated PET/MR 11.3.2.1 Guidance for Preoperative Needle Biopsy 11.3.2.2 Assistance for Preoperative Diagnosis of Brain Tumors 11.3.2.3 Evaluation of Therapeutic Efficacy and Prognosis in Brain Tumors Suggested Reading 12: Research Applications of Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance (PET/MR) Imaging in Cerebrovascular Diseases 12.1 Research Applications of MRI in Cerebrovascular Diseases 12.1.1 Research Applications of DWI in Cerebrovascular Diseases 12.1.2 Research Applications of DTI in Cerebrovascular Diseases 12.1.3 Research Applications of Brain Perfusion MRI in Cerebrovascular Diseases 12.1.4 Research Applications of MRS in Cerebrovascular Diseases 12.1.5 Research Applications of BOLD Imaging in Cerebrovascular Diseases 12.2 Research Applications of PET Imaging in Cerebrovascular Diseases 12.2.1 Applications of PET in Ischemic Cerebrovascular Diseases 12.2.1.1 Applications of PET in Acute Ischemic Cerebrovascular Diseases 12.2.1.2 Applications of PET in Chronic Cerebrovascular Diseases 12.2.1.3 Applications of PET in the Efficacy Evaluation of Treatments for Ischemic Cerebrovascular Disease 12.2.2 Applications of PET in Atherosclerotic Plaque 12.2.2.1 Applications of 18F-FDG PET in Carotid Atherosclerotic Plaque 12.2.2.2 Applications of Other PET Tracers in Vulnerable Carotid Plaques 12.3 Research Applications of PET/MR in Cerebrovascular Diseases 12.3.1 Applications of Integrated PET/MR in Cerebrovascular Diseases 12.3.1.1 Applications of Non-invasive Quantitative Methods with Integrated PET/MR 12.3.1.2 Evaluation of Chronic Ischemic Cerebrovascular Disease with Integrated PET/ MR 12.3.2 Applications of Integrated PET/MR in Carotid Atherosclerotic Plaque 12.3.2.1 Research Applications of 18F-FDG in Carotid Atherosclerotic Plaque 12.3.2.2 Research Applications of Other Tracers in Carotid Atherosclerotic Plaque Suggested Reading 13: Research Applications of Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance (PET/MR) Imaging in Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) 13.1 Research Applications of MRI in TBI 13.1.1 DTI Findings in TBI 13.1.2 fMRI Findings in TBI 13.1.3 Research Applications of Multimodal MRI on the Mechanisms of mTBI 13.1.3.1 Modulatory Effects of the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) Gene on the Functional Brain Networks of mTBI Patients 13.1.3.2 Modulatory Effects of the Bone-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) Gene on Cortical Thickness in mTBI Patients 13.1.3.3 Automatic Diagnosis of mTBI Subtypes Based on Machine Learning 13.1.4 Structural-Functional Coupling of the Brain in TBI-Induced Cognitive Aging Impairments 13.2 Research Applications of PET Imaging in TBI 13.2.1 18F-FDG Pet 13.2.2 Tau and Beta-Amyloid (Aβ) PET 13.2.3 CuCl2 PET 13.3 Research Applications of PET/MR in TBI 13.3.1 Combination of 18F-FDG PET and MR-DWI in the Evaluation of TBI 13.3.2 Combination of 11C-PiB PET and DTI in the Evaluation of TBI 13.3.3 Evaluation of TBI under Discordant PET and sMRI Data Suggested Reading 14: Research Applications of Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance (PET/MR) Imaging in Depression 14.1 Research Applications of MRI in Depression 14.1.1 Task-Based and Resting-State fMRI 14.1.1.1 Primary Principles and Methods 14.1.1.2 fMRI Studies on Brain Functional Abnormalities in Depression 14.1.1.3 Hypotheses on Abnormal Mechanisms of Functional Networks of the Brain Proposed by fMRI Studies 14.1.2 Research Applications of Structural MRI in Depression 14.1.3 Research Applications of Diffusion MRI in Depression 14.1.4 Research Applications of Arterial Spin Labelling (ASL) Imaging in Depression 14.1.5 Research Applications of Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) in Depression 14.1.6 Research on the Mechanisms of Therapeutic Efficacy 14.2 Research Applications of PET in Depression 14.2.1 Research on Brain Perfusion Imaging 14.2.2 Research on Brain Metabolic Imaging 14.2.2.1 Research on Brain Glucose Metabolic Imaging 14.2.2.2 Research on Brain Oxygen Metabolic Imaging 14.2.3 Research on Neurotransmitter Receptor Imaging 14.2.3.1 Research on 5-HT Receptor Imaging 14.2.3.2 Research on DA Receptor Imaging 14.2.3.3 Research on Norepinephrine Transporter Imaging 14.2.3.4 Research on Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor (mGluR) Imaging 14.2.3.5 Other Imaging Research 14.2.4 Summary 14.3 Research Applications of PET/MR in Depression 14.3.1 Research Advances of Integrated PET/MR in Depression 14.3.2 Research Advantages of Integrated PET/MR in Depression Suggested Reading 15: Research Applications of Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance (PET/MR) Imaging in Schizophrenia 15.1 Research Applications of MRI in Schizophrenia 15.1.1 Neurostructural Research in Schizophrenia 15.1.1.1 High-Risk Groups: Research from the Pre-Clinical Stage to the First Episode of Schizophrenia 15.1.1.2 Longitudinal Research on First-Episode Patients: Studies on Early-Stage Schizophrenia 15.1.1.3 Structural Changes of the Brain in Patients with Chronic Schizophrenia 15.1.2 fMRI Research in Schizophrenia 15.1.2.1 Resting-State fMRI Research 15.1.2.2 Task-Based fMRI Research 15.1.3 MRS Research in Schizophrenia 15.1.3.1 Schizophrenia and the Glutamatergic and GABAergic Regulatory Systems 15.1.3.2 GABA 1H-MRS Research in Patients with Schizophrenia 15.1.3.3 1H-MRS Research on Glu and Glutamine (Gln) in Patients with Schizophrenia 15.1.3.4 N-Acetylaspartate (NAA) 1H-MRS Research in Patients with Schizophrenia 15.1.3.5 Glutathione 1H-MRS Research in Patients with Schizophrenia 15.1.3.6 31P-MRS Research on Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD)+/NADH in Patients with Schizophrenia 15.1.3.7 31P-MRS Research on Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Patients with Schizophrenia 15.2 Research Applications of PET Imaging in Schizophrenia 15.2.1 Dopamine 15.2.1.1 D1 Receptors 15.2.1.2 D2/D3 Receptors 15.2.1.3 Dopamine Transporter (DAT) 15.2.1.4 Levodopa (L-DOPA) Uptake (Dopamine Synthesis Capacity) 15.2.2 5-HT 15.2.2.1 5-HT1A Receptor 15.2.2.2 5-HT2A Receptor 15.2.2.3 5-HTT 15.2.2.4 Other Components of the 5-HTergic System 15.2.3 Norepinephrine 15.3 Research Applications of PET/MR in Schizophrenia 15.3.1 Research Advances of Neuroimaging in Schizophrenia 15.3.2 Advantages of Multimodal Imaging in Schizophrenia Research Suggested Reading 16: Research Applications of Positron Emission Tomography/Magnetic Resonance (PET/MR) Imaging in Other Neurological Diseases 16.1 Research Applications of PET/MR in Multiple Sclerosis (MS) 16.1.1 Research Applications of MRI in MS 16.1.1.1 Research Applications of Voxel-Based Morphometry (VBM) in MS 16.1.1.2 Research Applications of Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) in MS 16.1.1.3 Research Applications of fMRI in MS 16.1.1.4 Research Applications of Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) in MS 16.1.2 Research Applications of PET Imaging in MS 16.1.2.1 Research Applications of 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) PET in MS 16.1.2.2 Neuroinflammation and Activated Microglia 16.1.2.3 Myelin Imaging 16.1.3 Research Applications of PET/MR in MS 16.2 Research Applications of PET/MR in Encephalitis 16.2.1 Research Applications of MRI in Encephalitis 16.2.1.1 Research Applications of Conventional MRI in Encephalitis 16.2.1.2 Research Applications of DTI in Encephalitis 16.2.1.3 Research Applications of MRS in Encephalitis 16.2.1.4 Research Applications of fMRI in Encephalitis 16.2.2 Research Applications of PET Imaging in Encephalitis 16.2.3 Research Applications of PET/MR in Encephalitis 16.3 Research Applications of PET/MR in Migraine 16.3.1 Research Applications of MRI in Migraine 16.3.1.1 Research Applications of Conventional MRI in Migraine 16.3.1.2 Research Applications of fMRI in Migraine 16.3.2 Research Applications of PET Imaging in Migraine Suggested Reading