Nanosensors: Physical, Chemical, and Biological (Series in Sensors)

Description

Nanosensors are innovative devices that exploit the unique properties exhibited by matter at the nanoscale. A growing and exciting field, nanosensors have recently spurred considerable research endeavors across the globe, driving a need for the development of new device concepts and engineering nanostructured materials with controlled properties. Nanosensors: Physical, Chemical, and Biological, Second Edition offers a panoramic view of the field and related nanotechnologies with extraordinary clarity and depth. Presenting an interdisciplinary approach, blending physics, chemistry and biology, this new edition is broad in scope and organised into six parts; beginning with the fundamentals before moving onto nanomaterials and nanofabrication technologies in the second part. The third and fourth parts provide a critical appraisal of physical nanosensors, and explore the chemical and biological categories of nanosensors. The fifth part sheds light on the emerging applications of nanosensors in the sectors of society, industry, and defense and details the cutting-edge applications of state-of-the-art nanosensors in environmental science, food technology, medical diagnostics, and biotechnology. The final part addresses self-powering and networking issues of nanosensors, and provides glimpses of future trends. This is an ideal reference for researchers and industry professionals engaged in the frontier areas of material science and semiconductor fabrication as well as graduate students in physics and engineering pursuing electrical engineering and electronics courses with a focus on nanoscience and nanotechnology. Key features: Provides an updated, all-encompassing exploration of contemporary nanosensors and highlights the exclusive nanoscale properties on which nanosensors are designed. Presents an accessible approach with a question-and-answer format to allow an easy grasp of the intricacies involved in the complex working mechanisms of devices. Contains clear, illustrative diagrams enabling the visualization of nanosensor operations, along with worked examples, end of chapter questions, and exhaustive up-to-date bibliographies appended to each chapter. Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition Acknowledgments Author’s Profile About the Book (2nd Edition) Abbreviations and Acronyms Mathematical Notation Part I Fundamental Concepts of Nanosensors Chapter 1 Introduction to Nanosensors 1.1 Getting Started with Nanosensors 1.2 Natural Sciences 1.3 Physics 1.3.1 Definition of Physics 1.3.2 Branches of Physics 1.3.3 Matter: Its States, Materials, and Particles 1.3.4 Molecules, Atoms, and Atomic Structure 1.3.5 Mechanics 1.3.6 Heat 1.3.7 Sound 1.3.8 Light 1.3.9 Electricity 1.3.10 Magnetism 1.3.11 Electromagnetism 1.3.12 SI System of Units 1.4 Chemistry 1.4.1 Definition of Chemistry 1.4.2 Elements and Compounds 1.4.3 Organic and Inorganic Compounds 1.4.4 Subdivisions of Chemistry 1.4.5 Natural and Artificial Elements 1.4.6 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids 1.4.7 Periodic Table of Elements 1.4.8 Chemical Change and Reaction 1.4.9 Electronic Configuration (Structure) of Elements 1.4.10 Chemical Bond 1.4.11 Oxidation and Reduction 1.4.12 Acid, Base, and Salt 1.4.13 Expressing Concentrations of Solutions and Gases 1.4.14 Hydrocarbons: Saturated and Unsaturated 1.4.15 Alkyl and Aryl Groups 1.4.16 Alcohols and Phenols 1.4.17 Carboxylic Acids 1.4.18 Aldehydes and Ketones 1.4.19 Amines and Amino Acids 1.4.20 Lipids 1.4.21 Carbohydrates 1.4.22 Proteins and Enzymes 1.5 Biology 1.5.1 What Is Biology? 1.5.2 Branches of Biology 1.5.3 Origin and Evolution of Life 1.5.4 The Cell 1.5.5 Differences between Bacteria and Viruses 1.5.6 Heredity, Chromosomes, Genes, and Related Terms 1.6 Semiconductor Electronics 1.6.1 What Is Semiconductor Electronics? 1.6.2 Energy Bands in Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators 1.6.3 Interesting Properties of Semiconductors 1.6.4 P–N Junction 1.6.5 Bipolar Junction Transistor 1.6.6 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor 1.6.7 Analog and Digital Circuits 1.7 Nanometer and Appreciation of Its Magnitude 1.8 Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 1.9 Nanomaterials and the Unusual Behavior at Nanoscales 1.10 Moving toward Sensors and Transducers: Meaning of Terms “Sensors” and “Transducers” 1.11 Definition of Sensor Parameters and Characteristics 1.12 Evolution of Semiconductor-Based Microsensors 1.13 From the Macrosensor to the Microsensor Age and the Necessity for Nanoscale Measurements 1.13.1 A Miniaturized Sensor Can Accomplish Many Tasks That a Bulky Device Cannot Perform 1.13.2 The Issue of Power Consumption 1.13.3 Low Response Times 1.13.4 Multi-Analyte Detection and Multifunctionality 1.13.5 Sensitivity Considerations and Need for Functionalization 1.13.6 Interfacing with Biomolecules 1.13.7 Low Costs 1.13.8 Possibility of a New Genre of Devices 1.14 Definition and Classification of Nanosensors 1.15 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Nanosensors 1.16 Some Examples of Nanosensors 1.16.1 Common Nanosensors 1.16.2 Carbon Nanotube-Based Nanosensors 1.16.3 Nanoscaled Thin-Film Sensors 1.16.4 Microcantilever- and Nanocantilever-Enabled Nanosensors 1.17 Getting Familiar with Analytical and Characterization Tools: Microscopic Techniques to View Nanomaterials and Nanosensors 1.17.1 Scanning Electron Microscope 1.17.2 Transmission Electron Microscope 1.17.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscope 1.17.4 Atomic Force Microscope 1.18 Spectroscopic Techniques for Analyzing Chemical Composition of Nanomaterials and Nanosensors 1.18.1 Infrared Spectroscopy 1.18.2 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy 1.18.3 Raman Spectroscopy 1.18.4 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX) 1.18.5 Auger Electron Spectroscopy 1.18.6 X-Ray Diffraction 1.18.7 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy or Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis 1.18.8 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry 1.19 The Displacement Nanosensor: STM 1.19.1 Principle of Operation 1.19.2 Transmission Coefficient 1.19.3 Tunneling Current 1.19.4 Measurements with STM 1.19.4.1 Topography 1.19.4.2 Density of States 1.19.4.3 Linecut 1.19.4.4 DOS Map 1.20 The Force Nanosensor: AFM 1.20.1 Operating Principle 1.20.2 Lennard-Jones Potential and the Van der Waals Forces 1.20.3 Other Forces and Potentials 1.20.4 Force Sensor (Cantilever) and Force Measurement 1.20.5 Static and Dynamic Atomic Force Microscopy 1.20.6 Classification of Modes of Operation of AFM on the Basis of Contact 1.20.6.1 Contact Mode 1.20.6.2 Noncontact Mode 1.20.6.3 Tapping Mode (Intermittent-Contact Mode) 1.20.7 Frequency-Modulation Atomic Force Microscopy 1.20.8 Generic Calculation 1.21 Outline and Organization of the Book 1.22 Discussion and Conclusions Review Exercises References Part II Nanomaterials and Micro/Nanofabrication Facilities Chapter 2 Materials for Nanosensors 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Nanoparticles or Nanoscale Particles, the Importance of the Intermediate Regime between Atoms and Molecules, and Bulk Matter 2.3 Classification of Nanoparticles on the Basis of Their Composition and Occurrence 2.4 Core-/Shell-Structured Nanoparticles 2.4.1 Inorganic Core/Shell Nanoparticles 2.4.2 Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Core/Shell Nanoparticles 2.5 Shape Dependence of Properties at the Nanoscale 2.6 Dependence of Properties of Nanoparticles on Particle Size 2.7 Surface Energy of a Solid 2.8 Metallic Nanoparticles and Plasmons 2.8.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance on Bulk Metals 2.8.2 Surface Plasmon Band Phenomenon in Metal Nanoparticles 2.9 Optical Properties of Bulk Metals and Metallic Nanoparticles 2.9.1 Light Absorption by Bulk Metals and Metallic Nanoparticles 2.9.2 Light Scattering by Nanoparticles 2.10 Parameters Controlling the Position of Surface Plasmon Band of Nanoparticles 2.10.1 Effect of the Surrounding Dielectric Medium 2.10.2 Influence of Agglomeration-Preventing Ligands and Stabilizers 2.10.3 Effect of Nanoparticle Size and Shape 2.10.4 Compositional Effect 2.11 Quantum Confinement 2.11.1 Quantum Confinement in Metals 2.11.2 Quantum Confinement in Semiconductors 2.11.3 Bandgap Energies 2.11.4 Bandgap Behavior Explanation by Particle-in-a-One-Dimensional Box Model of Electron Behavior 2.12 Quantum Dots 2.12.1 Fundamentals 2.12.2 Tight-Binding Approach to Optical Bandgap (Exciton Energy) Versus Quantum Dot Size 2.12.3 Comparison of Quantum Dots With Organic Fluorophores 2.12.4 Types of Quantum Dots Depending on Composition 2.12.5 Classification of Quantum Dots Based on Structure 2.12.6 Capping Molecules or Ligands on the Surfaces of Quantum Dots 2.13 Carbon Nanotubes 2.13.1 What Are Carbon Nanotubes? 2.13.2 Structure of Graphene 2.13.3 Structure of SWCNTs 2.13.4 Mechanical Properties of CNTs 2.13.5 Electrical, Electronic, and Magnetic Properties of CNTs 2.14 Inorganic Nanowires 2.15 Nanoporous Materials 2.15.1 Nanoporous Silicon 2.15.2 Nanoporous Alumina 2.15.3 Nano-Grained Thin Films 2.16 Discussion and Conclusions Review Exercises References Chapter 3 Nanosensor Laboratory 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Nanotechnology Division 3.2.1 Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles 3.2.1.1 Gold Nanoparticles 3.2.1.2 Silver Nanoparticles 3.2.1.3 Platinum Nanoparticles 3.2.1.4 Palladium Nanoparticles 3.2.2 Synthesis of Semiconductor Nanoparticles 3.2.3 Synthesis of Semiconductor Nanocrystals: Quantum Dots 3.2.3.1 CdSe/ZnS Core/Shell QDs 3.2.3.2 CdSe/CdS Core/Shell QDs 3.2.3.3 PbS and PbS/CdS Core/Shell QDs 3.2.4 Synthesis of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 3.2.5 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes 3.2.5.1 Arc Discharge Method of CNT Production 3.2.5.2 Laser Ablation Method of CNT Production 3.2.5.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition Method of CNT Production 3.2.5.4 Difficulties Faced with Carbon Nanotubes 3.3 Micro- and Nanoelectronics Division 3.3.1 Semiconductor Clean Room 3.3.2 Silicon Single-Crystal Growth and Wafer Production 3.3.3 Molecular Beam Epitaxy 3.3.4 Mask Making 3.3.5 Thermal Oxidation 3.3.6 Diffusion of Impurities in a Semiconductor 3.3.7 Ion Implantation 3.3.8 Photolithography 3.3.8.1 Physical Limits 3.3.8.2 Optical Lithography 3.3.8.3 Electron-Beam Lithography 3.3.8.4 X-Ray Lithography 3.3.8.5 Dip-Pen Nanolithography 3.3.8.6 Nanoimprint Lithography 3.3.8.7 Nanosphere Lithography 3.3.9 Chemical Vapor Deposition 3.3.10 Wet Chemical Etching and Common Etchants 3.3.11 Reactive Ion Etching 3.3.12 Focused Ion Beam Etching and Deposition 3.3.13 Metallization 3.3.14 Dicing, Wire Bonding, and Encapsulation 3.3.15 IC Downscaling: Special Technologies and Processes 3.3.15.1 Downscaling Trends 3.3.15.2 SOI-MOSFETs 3.3.15.3 SIMOX Process 3.3.15.4 Smart Cut Process 3.3.15.5 Strained Silicon Process 3.3.15.6 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches 3.3.15.7 DNA Electronics 3.3.15.8 Spintronics 3.4 MEMS and NEMS Division 3.4.1 Surface and Bulk Micromachining 3.4.2 Machining by Wet and Dry Etching Techniques 3.4.3 Deep Reactive-Ion Etching 3.4.4 Front- and Back-Side Mask Alignment 3.4.5 Multiple Wafer Bonding and Glass-Silicon Bonding 3.4.6 Wafer Lapping 3.4.7 Chemical Mechanical Polishing 3.4.8 Electroplating 3.4.9 LIGA Process 3.4.10 Micro-Injection Molding 3.4.11 Hot Embossing and Electroforming 3.4.12 Combination of MEMS/NEMS and CMOS Processes 3.5 Biochemistry Division 3.5.1 Surface Functionalization and Biofunctionalization of Nanomaterials 3.5.2 Immobilization of Biological Elements 3.5.3 Protocols for Attachment of Antibodies on Sensors 3.5.4 Functionalization of CNTs for Biological Applications 3.5.5 Water Solubility of Quantum Dots 3.5.6 Low Cytotoxicity Coatings 3.6 Chemistry Division 3.6.1 Nanoparticle Thin-Film Deposition 3.6.2 Polymer Coatings in Nano Gas Sensors 3.6.3 Metallic Nanoparticle Functionalization of Si Nanowires for Gas Sensing Applications 3.7 Nanosensor Characterization Division 3.8 Nanosensor Powering, Signal Processing, and Communication Division 3.8.1 Power Unit 3.8.1.1 Lithium Nanobatteries 3.8.1.2 Self-Powered Nanogenerators 3.8.1.3 Energy Harvesting from the Environment 3.8.1.4 Synthetic Chemical Batteries Based on Adenosine Triphosphate 3.8.2 Signal Processing Unit 3.8.3 Integrated Nanosensor Systems 3.8.4 Wireless Nanosensor Networks 3.9 Discussion and Conclusions Review Exercises References Part III Physical Nanosensors Chapter 4 Mechanical Nanosensors 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Nanogram Mass Sensing by Quartz Crystal Microbalance 4.3 Attogram (10−18g) and Zeptogram (10−21g) Mass Sensing by MEMS/NEMS Resonators 4.3.1 Microcantilever Definitions and Theory 4.3.1.1 Resonance Frequency Formula 4.3.1.2 Deflection Formula 4.3.2 Energy Dissipation and Q-Factor of Cantilever 4.3.3 Noise of Cantilever and Its Mass Detection Limit 4.3.4 Doubly Clamped and Free-Free Beam Resonators 4.4 Electron Tunneling Displacement Nanosensor 4.5 Coulomb Blockade Electrometer-Based Nanosensor 4.5.1 Coulomb Blockade Effect 4.5.2 Comparison with Tunneling Sensors 4.6 Nanometer-Scale Displacement Sensing by Single-Electron Transistor 4.7 Magnetomotive Displacement Nanosensor 4.8 Piezoresistive and Piezoelectric Displacement Nanosensors 4.9 Optical Displacement Nanosensor 4.10 Femtonewton Force Sensors Using Doubly Clamped Suspended Carbon Nanotube Resonators 4.11 Suspended CNT Electromechanical Sensors for Displacement and Force 4.12 Membrane-Based CNT Electromechanical Pressure Sensor 4.13 Tunnel Effect Accelerometer 4.13.1 Principle of Motion Detection 4.13.2 Construction and Working 4.13.3 Micromachined Accelerometer 4.14 NEMS Accelerometer 4.15 Silicon Nanowire Accelerometer 4.16 CNT Flow Sensor for Ionic Solutions 4.17 Discussion and Conclusions Review Exercises References Chapter 5 Thermal Nanosensors 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Nanoscale Thermocouple Formed by Tungsten and Platinum Nanosized Strips 5.3 Resistive Thermal Nanosensor Fabricated by Focused-Ion-Beam Chemical-Vapor-Deposition (FIB-CVD) 5.4 Carbon “Nanowire-on-Diamond” Resistive Temperature Nanosensor 5.5 Carbon Nanotube Grown on Nickel Film as a Resistive Low-temperature (10–300 K) Nanosensor 5.6 Laterally Grown CNTs between Two Microelectrodes as a Resistive Temperature Nanosensor 5.7 Silicon Nanowire Temperature Nanosensors: Resistors and Diode Structures 5.8 Ratiometric Fluorescent Nanoparticles for Temperature Sensing 5.9 Er3+/Yb3+ Co-Doped Gd2O3 Nanophosphor as a Temperature Nanosensor, Using Fluorescence Intensity Ratio Technique 5.10 Optical Heating of Yb3+-Er3+ Co-Doped Fluoride Nanoparticles and Distant Temperature Sensing through Luminescence 5.11 Porphyrin-Containing Copolymer as a Thermochromic Nanosensor 5.12 Silicon-Micromachined Scanning Thermal Profiler (STP) 5.13 Superconducting Hot Electron Nanobolometers 5.14 Thermal Convective Accelerometer Using CNT Sensing Element 5.15 Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Sensor for Airflow Measurement 5.16 Vacuum Pressure and Flow Velocity Sensors, Using Batch-Processed CNT Wall 5.17 Nanogap Pirani Gauge 5.18 Carbon Nanotube-Polymer Nanocomposite as a Conductivity Response Infrared Nanosensor 5.19 Nanocalorimetry 5.20 Discussion and Conclusions Review Exercises References Chapter 6 Optical Nanosensors 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Noble-Metal Nanoparticles With LSPR and UV-Visible Spectroscopy 6.3 Nanosensors Based on Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering 6.4 Colloidal SPR Colorimetric Gold Nanoparticle Spectrophotometric Sensor 6.5 Fiber-Optic Nanosensors 6.5.1 Fabry-Perot Reflectometric Optochemical Nanosensor, Using Optical Fibers and SWCNTs 6.5.2 In-Fiber Nanocavity Sensor 6.5.3 Fiber-Optic Nanosensors for Probing Living Cells 6.6 Nanograting-Based Optical Accelerometer 6.7 Fluorescent pH-Sensitive Nanosensors 6.7.1 Renewable Glass Nanopipette with Fluorescent Dye Molecules 6.7.2 Ratiometric pH Nanosensor 6.7.3 pH-Sensitive Microcapsules With Nanoparticle Incorporation in the Walls 6.8 Disadvantages of Optical Fiber and Fluorescent Nanosensors for Living Cell Studies 6.9 PEBBLE Nanosensors to Measure the Intracellular Environment 6.10 Quantum Dots as Fluorescent Labels 6.11 Quantum Dot FRET-Based Probes 6.11.1 QD-FRET Protein Sensor 6.11.2 QD-FRET Protease Sensor 6.11.3 QD-FRET Maltose Sensor 6.11.4 Sensor for Determining the Dissociation Constant (Kd) between Rev and RRE 6.12 Electrochemiluminescent Nanosensors for Remote Detection 6.13 Crossed Zinc Oxide Nanorods As Resistive UV-Nanosensors 6.14 Discussion and Conclusions Review Exercises References Chapter 7 Magnetic Nanosensors 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Magnetoresistance Sensors 7.2.1 Ordinary Magnetoresistance: The Hall Effect 7.2.2 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance 7.2.3 Giant Magnetoresistance 7.2.3.1 Scientific Explanation of GMR 7.2.3.2 Simple Analogies of GMR 7.2.3.3 Optimizing Parameters 7.2.3.4 GMR Sensor Structures 7.3 Tunneling Magnetoresistance 7.4 Limitations, Advantages, and Applications of GMR and TMR Sensors 7.4.1 Shortcomings 7.4.2 Advantages 7.4.3 Applications 7.5 Magnetic Nanoparticle Probes for Studying Molecular Interactions 7.5.1 DNA Analysis 7.5.2 Protein Detection 7.5.3 Virus Detection 7.5.4 Telomerase Activity Analysis 7.6 Protease-Specific Nanosensors for MRI 7.7 Magnetic Relaxation Switch Immunosensors 7.8 Magneto Nanosensor Microarray Biochip 7.8.1 Rationale and Motivation 7.8.2 Sensor Choice, Design Considerations, Passivation, and Magnetic Nanotag Issues 7.8.3 Understanding Magnetic Array Operation 7.8.4 Influence of Reaction Conditions on the Sensor 7.8.5 DNA and Tumor Marker Detection 7.8.6 GMR-Based Detection System With Zeptomole (10−21 Mol) Sensitivity 7.8.7 Bead ARray Counter (BARC) Biosensor 7.9 Needle-Type SV-GMR Sensor for Biomedical Applications 7.10 Superconductive Magnetic Nanosensor 7.11 Electron Tunneling-Based Magnetic Field Sensor 7.12 Nanowire Magnetic Compass and Position Sensor 7.13 Discussion and Conclusions Review Exercises References Part IV Chemical and Biological Nanosensors Chapter 8 Chemical Nanosensors 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Gas Sensors Based on Nanomaterials 8.3 Metallic Nanoparticle-Based Gas Sensors 8.4 Metal Oxide Gas Sensors 8.4.1 Sensing Mechanism of Metal Oxide Sensors 8.4.2 Sensitivity Controlling Parameters and the Influence of Heat Treatment 8.4.3 Effect of Additives on Sensor Response 8.5 Carbon Nanotube Gas Sensors 8.5.1 Gas-Sensing Properties of CNTs 8.5.2 Responses of SWCNTs and MWCNTs 8.5.3 Modification of CNTs 8.5.4 CNT-Based FET-Type Sensor 8.5.5 MWCNTs/SnO2 Ammonia Sensor 8.5.6 CNT-Based Acoustic Gas Sensor 8.6 Porous Silicon–Based Gas Sensor 8.7 Thin Organic Polymer Film-Based Gas Sensors 8.8 Electrospun Polymer Nanofibers as Humidity Sensors 8.9 Toward Large Nanosensor Arrays and Nanoelectronic Nose 8.10 CNT-, Nanowire- and Nanobelt-Based Chemical Nanosensors 8.10.1 CNT-Based ISFET for Nano pH Sensor 8.10.2 NW Nanosensor for pH Detection 8.10.3 ZnS/Silica Nanocable FET pH Sensor 8.10.4 Bridging Nanowire As Vapor Sensor 8.10.5 Palladium Functionalized Si NW H2 Sensor 8.10.6 Polymer-Functionalized Piezoelectric-FET Humidity Nanosensor 8.11 Optochemical Nanosensors 8.11.1 Low-Potential Quantum Dot ECL Sensor for Metal Ion 8.11.2 BSA-Activated CdTe QD Nanosensor for Sb3+ Ion 8.11.3 Functionalized CdSe/ZnS QD Nanosensor for Hg(II) Ion 8.11.4 Marine Diatom Gas Sensors 8.12 Discussion and Conclusions Review Exercises References Chapter 9 Nanobiosensors 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Nanoparticle-Based Electrochemical Biosensors 9.2.1 Nitric Oxide Electrochemical Sensor 9.2.2 Determination of Dopamine, Uric Acid, and Ascorbic Acid 9.2.3 Detection of CO 9.2.4 Glucose Detection 9.2.5 Gold Nanoparticle DNA Biosensor 9.2.6 Monitoring Allergen-Antibody Reactions 9.2.7 Hepatitis B Immunosensor 9.2.8 Carcinoembryonic Antigen Detection 9.2.9 Escherichia coli Detection in Milk Samples 9.3 CNT-Based Electrochemical Biosensors 9.3.1 Oxidation of Dopamine 9.3.2 Direct Electrochemistry or Electrocatalysis of Catalase 9.3.3 CNT-Based Electrochemical DNA Biosensor 9.3.4 Glucose Biosensor 9.3.5 Cholesterol Biosensor 9.3.6 H2O2 Biosensor 9.4 Functionalization of CNTs for Biosensor Fabrication 9.5 QD (Quantum Dot)-Based Electrochemical Biosensors 9.5.1 Uric Acid Biosensor 9.5.2 Hydrogen Peroxide Biosensor 9.5.3 CdS Nanoparticles Modified Electrode for Glucose Detection 9.5.4 QD Light-Triggered Glucose Detection 9.6 Nanotube and Nanowire-Based FET Nanobiosensors 9.6.1 Nanotube versus Nanowire 9.6.2 Functionalization of SiNWs 9.6.3 DNA and Protein Detection 9.7 Cantilever-Based Nanobiosensors 9.7.1 Biofunctionalization of the Microcantilever Surface 9.7.2 Biosensing Applications 9.8 Optical Nanobiosensors 9.8.1 Aptamers 9.8.2 Aptamer-Modified Au Nanoparticles as a Colorimetric Adenosine Nanosensor 9.8.3 Aptamer-Based Multicolor Fluorescent Gold Nanoprobe for Simultaneous Adenosine, Potassium Ion, and Cocaine Detection 9.8.4 Aptamer-Capped QD as a Thrombin Nanosensor 9.8.5 QD Aptameric Cocaine Nanosensor 9.9 Biochips (or Microarrays) 9.10 Discussion and Conclusions Review Exercises References Part V Emerging Applications of Nanosensors Chapter 10 Nanosensors for Societal Benefits 10.1 Air Pollutants 10.2 Nanosensors for Particulate Matter Detection 10.2.1 Cantilever-Based Airborne Nanoparticle Detector (CANTOR) 10.2.2 Nanomechanical Resonant Filter-Fiber 10.2.3 Aerosol Sensing by Voltage Modulation 10.2.4 MEMS-Based Particle Detection System 10.3 Nanosensors for Carbon Monoxide Detection 10.3.1 Au Nanoparticle-Based Miniature CO Detector 10.3.2 CuO Nanowire Sensor on Micro-Hotplate 10.3.3 ZnO Nanowall-Based Conductometric Sensor 10.3.4 ZnO NPs-Loaded 3D Reduced Graphene Oxide (ZnO/3D-rGO) Sensor 10.3.5 Europium-Doped Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles Thick-Film Sensor 10.3.6 Pt-decorated SnO2 Nanoparticles Sensor 10.4 Nanosensors for Sulfur Dioxide Detection 10.4.1 Tungsten Oxide Nanostructures-Based Sensor 10.4.2 SnO2 Thin-Film Sensor with Nanoclusters of Metal Oxide Modifiers/Catalysts 10.4.3 Fluorescence Nanoprobe 10.4.4 Niobium-Loaded Tungsten Oxide Film Sensor 10.4.5 Nickel Nanowall-Based Sensor 10.5 Nanosensors for Nitrogen Dioxide Detection 10.5.1 SnO2 Nanoribbon Sensor 10.5.2 Tris(hydroxymethyl) Aminomethane (THMA)-Capped ZnO Nanoparticle-Coated ZnO Nanowire Sensor 10.5.3 In2O3-Sensitized CuO-ZnO Nanoparticle Composite Film Sensor 10.5.4 UV-Activated, Pt-Decorated Single-Crystal ZnO Nanowire Sensor 10.6 Nanosensors for Ozone Detection 10.6.1 SnO2/SWCNT Hybrid Thin-Film Sensor 10.6.2 Nanocrystalline SrTi1-xFexO3 (STF) Thin-Film Sensor 10.6.3 ZnO Nanoparticle Sensor 10.6.4 Pd-Decorated MWCNT Sensor 10.6.5 UV-Illuminated ZnO Nanocrystal Sensor 10.7 Nanosensors for VOC Detection 10.7.1 Chemiresistive Sensor Using Gold Nanoparticles 10.7.2 Metal-Organic Framework (MOF) Nanoparticle-Based Capacitive Sensor 10.7.3 Al-Doped ZnO Nanowire {(ZnO:Al)NW}Sensor 10.7.4 Nickel-Doped Tin Oxide Nanoparticle (Ni-SnO2 NP) Sensor for Formaldehyde 10.7.5 Palladium Nanoparticle (PdNP)/Nickel Oxide (NiO) Thin- Film/Palladium (Pd) Thin-Film Sensor for Formaldehyde 10.7.6 Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Sensor With Polymer-Sensitive Film Containing Embedded Nanoparticles 10.7.7 Resorcinol-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Probe for Formaldehyde Detection 10.8 Nanosensors for Ammonia Detection 10.8.1 Polyaniline Nanoparticle Conductimetric Sensor 10.8.2 MoO3 Nanoparticle Gel-Coated Sensor 10.8.3 ZnO:Eu2+ Fluorescence Quenching Nanoparticle-Based Optical Sensor 10.8.4 Pt Nanoparticle (Pt NP)-Decorated WO3 Sensor 10.9 Water Pollutants 10.10 Nanosensors for Detection of Escherichia coli 0157:H7 10.10.1 Magnetoelastic Sensor Amplified With Chitosan-Modified Fe3O4 Magnetic Nanoparticles (CMNPs) 10.10.2 Mercaptoethylamine (MEA)-Modified Gold Nanoparticle Sensor 10.10.3 Cysteine-Capped Gold Nanoparticle Sensor 10.10.4 Three Nanoparticles-Based Biosensor (Iron Oxide, Gold, and Lead Sulfide) 10.10.5 Magneto-Fluorescent Nanosensor (MfnS) 10.10.6 Signal-Off Impedimetric Nanosensor With a Sensitivity Enhancement by Captured Nanoparticles 10.10.7 An Impedimetric Biosensor for E. coli O157:H7 Based on the Use of Self-Assembled Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) and Protein G-Thiol (PrG-Thiol) Scaffold 10.10.8 Gold Nanoparticles Surface Plasmon Resonance (AuNP SPR) Chip 10.10.9 Microfluidic Nanosensor Working on Aggregation of Gold Nanoparticles and Imaging by Smartphone 10.11 Nanosensors for Detection of Vibrio cholerae and Cholera Toxin 10.11.1 Lactose-Stabilized Gold Nanoparticles 10.11.2 ssDNA/Nanostructured MgO (nMgO)/Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Bioelectrode 10.11.3 Nanostructured MgO (nMgO) Photoluminescence Sensor 10.11.4 Lyophilized Gold Nanoparticle/Polystyrene-Co-Acrylic Acid-Based Genosensor 10.11.5 Polystyrene-co-Acrylic Acid (PSA) Latex Nanospheres 10.11.6 Graphene Nanosheet Bioelectrode with Lipid Film Containing Ganglioside GM1 Receptor of Cholera Toxin 10.12 Nanosensors for Detection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa 10.12.1 Probe-Modified Magnetic Nanoparticles-Based Chemiluminescent Sensor 10.12.2 Reduced Graphene Electrode Decorated with Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) 10.12.3 Polyaniline(PANI)/Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Decorated Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Electrode 10.13 Nanosensors for Detection of Legionella pneumophila 10.13.1 ZnO Nanorod (ZnO-NR) Matrix-Based Immunosensor 10.13.2 Azimuthally-Controlled Gold Grating-Coupling Surface Plasmon Resonance (GC-SPR) Platform 10.14 Nanosensors for Detection of Mercury Ions 10.14.1 Thymine Derivative (N-T) Decorated Gold Nanoparticle Sensor 10.14.2 Smartphone-Based Microwell Reader (MR S-phone) AuNP-Aptamer Colorimetric Sensor 10.14.3 Starch-Stabilized Silver Nanoparticle-Based Colorimetric Sensor 10.14.4 Chitosan-Stabilized Silver Nanoparticle (Chi-AgNP)-Based Colorimetric Sensor 10.15 Nanosensors for Detection of Lead Ions 10.15.1 Glutathione (GSH)-Stabilized Silver Nanoparticle (AgNP) Sensor 10.15.2 Maleic acid (MA)-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor 10.15.3 Label-Free Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) in the Presence of Glutathione (GSH) 10.15.4 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) Conjugated with Thioctic Acid (TA) and Fluorescent Dansyl Hydrazine (DNS) Molecules 10.15.5 Valine-Capped Gold Nanoparticle Sensor 10.15.6 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)-Stabilized Colloidal Silver Nanoparticles (Ag NPs) in the Presence of Dithizone 10.15.7 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Graphene (GR)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE) 10.16 Nanosensors for Detection of As(III) ions 10.16.1 Portable Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) System 10.16.2 Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Nanosensor 10.16.3 FePt Bimetallic Nanoparticle (FePt-NP) Sensor 10.16.4 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE) for Co-Detection of As(III) and Se(IV) 10.16.5 Silver Nanoparticle-Modified Gold Electrode 10.16.6 Carbon Nanoparticle (CNP)/Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE) Aptasensor 10.16.7 Gold Nanostructured Electrode on a Gold Foil (Au/GNE) 10.16.8 Bimetallic Nanoparticle (NP) and [Bimetallic NP + Polyaniline (PANI)] Composite-Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode (SPCE) 10.16.9 Ranolazine (Rano)-Functionalized Copper Nanoparticles (CuNPs) 10.17 Nanosensors for Detection of Cr(VI) Ions 10.17.1 Colloidal Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Probe-Based Immunochromatographic Sensor 10.17.2 Amyloid-Fibril-Based Sensor 10.17.3 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Decorated Titanium Dioxide Nanotubes (TiO2NTs) on a Ti Substrate 10.18 Nanosensors for Detection of Cd2+ ions 10.18.1 Gold Nanoparticle Amalgam (AuNPA)-Modified Screen-Printed Electrode (SPE) 10.18.2 Turn-On Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Sensor 10.18.3 Thioglycerol (TG)-Capped CdSe Quantum Dots (QDs) 10.18.4 CdTe Quantum (CdTe QD) Dot-Based Hybrid Probe 10.18.5 Aptamer-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor 10.19 Nanosensors for Detection of Cu2+ ions 10.19.1 Azide and Terminal Alkyne-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor 10.19.2 Cadmium Sulfide Nanoparticle (CdS NP)-Gold Quantum Dot (Au QD) Sensor 10.19.3 Multiple Antibiotic Resistance Regulator (MarR)-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor 10.19.4 Casein Peptide-Functionalized Silver Nanoparticle (AgNP) Sensor 10.20 Nanosensors for Detection of Pesticides 10.20.1 DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) 10.20.2 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid (2,4-D) 10.20.3 Carbofuran (CBF) 10.20.3.1 Amperometric Immunosensor 10.20.3.2 Molecularly Imprinted Polymer (MIP)-Reduced Graphene Oxide and Gold Nanoparticle (rGO@AuNP)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE) 10.20.3.3 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Based Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) 10.20.4 Methomyl 10.20.5 Dimethoate 10.20.6 Atrazine 10.20.6.1 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Modified Gold (Au) Electrode 10.20.6.2 Cysteamine (Cys)-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) 10.20.6.3 Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Quantum Dot-Based Luminescent Probe 10.20.7 Paraoxon-Ethyl 10.20.8 Acetamiprid 10.20.9 Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), Perchlorobenzene 10.20.10 Malathion (MLT): Diethyl 2-[(d​imeth​oxyph​ospho​rothi​oyl)s​ulfan​yl]bu​taned​ioate​ 10.20.11 Dithiocarbamate (DTC) Pesticide Group 10.21 Discussion and Conclusions 10.21.1 Particulate Matter 10.21.2 Gases 10.21.3 Pathogens 10.21.4 Metals 10.21.5 Pesticides Review Exercises References Chapter 11 Nanosensors for Industrial Applications 11.1 Nanosensors for Detection of Food-Borne Pathogenic Bacteria 11.1.1 Salmonella typhimurium 11.1.1.1 DNA Aptamers and Magnetic Nanoparticle (MNP)-Based Colorimetric Sensor 11.1.1.2 Strip Sensor Using Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Labeled Genus-Specific Anti-Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) Monoclonal Antibody (mAb) 11.1.2 Clostridium perfringens 11.1.3 Listeria monocytogenes 11.1.3.1 Immunomagnetic Nanoparticles (IMNPs) with Microfluidic Chip and Interdigitated Microelectrodes 11.1.3.2 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)/DNA Colorimetric Probe Assay 11.1.4 Campylobacter jejuni 11.1.5 Yersinia enterocolitica 11.2 Nanosensors for Detection of Food-Borne Toxins 11.2.1 Botulinum Neurotoxin Serotype A (BoNT/A) 11.2.1.1 Gold Nanodendrite (AuND)/Chitosan Nanoparticle (CSNP)-Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode (SPCE) for Botulinum Neurotoxin Serotype A (BoNT/A) 11.2.1.2 Peptide-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)-Based Colorimetric Assay for Botulinum Serotype A Light Chain (BoLcA) 11.2.2 Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB) 11.3 Nanosensors for Cancer Cell/Biomarker Detection 11.3.1 Breast Cancer Cell MCF-7 11.3.2 HER2, A Medical Sign of Breast Cancer 11.3.3 Serum Amyloid A1 (SAA1) Antigen, a Lung-Cancer-Specific Biomarker 11.3.4 Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA), a Biomarker for Prostate Cancer 11.3.5 miRNA-106a, the Biomarker of Gastric Cancer 11.3.6 Colorectal Carcinoma Cell 11.3.7 Cluster of Differentiation 10 (CD10) Antigen, the Common Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Antigen 11.4 Nanosensors for Detection of Infectious Disease Indicators 11.4.1 IgG Antibodies to Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (α-HbsAg IgG Antibodies) 11.4.2 Dengue-1 RNA 11.4.3 Japanese Encaphilitis Virus (JEV) Antigen 11.4.4 HIV-1 p24 Antigen 11.4.5 Zika Virus (ZIKV) 11.4.6 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 11.4.7 Pneumococcus or Streptococcus pneumoniae 11.4.8 Acid-Fast Bacilli (AFB) 11.4.9 Streptococcus pyogenes Single-Stranded Genomic-DNA (S. pyogenes ssg-DNA) 11.4.10 Plasmodium falciparum Heat-Shock Protein 70 (PfHsp70) 11.5 Nanosensors for Automotive, Aerospace, and Consumer Applications 11.5.1 Strain/Pressure Sensors 11.5.1.1 Polymer-Metallic Nanoparticles Composite Pressure Sensor 11.5.1.2 Percolative Pd Nanoparticle (PdNP) Array-Based Pressure Sensor 11.5.1.3 Silver Nanoparticle (AgNP)/Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) Strain/Pressure Sensor 11.5.1.4 Polyacrylamide (PAAm)/Gold nanoparticle (AuNP) Pressure Sensor 11.5.2 Acoustic Vibration Sensor 11.5.3 Acceleration Sensor 11.5.4 Orientation, Angular Rate, or Angle Sensors 11.5.4.1 CNT Field-Emission Nano Gyroscope 11.5.4.2 Magnetic Nanoparticles-Based Gyroscopic Sensor 11.5.5 Ultrasound Sensor 11.5.6 Magnetic Field Sensor 11.5.6.1 Nanoparticle Core-Based Fluxgate Magnetometer 11.5.6.2 Magnetic Nanoparticle (MNP)-Functionalized Magnetometer 11.6 Discussion and Conclusions 11.6.1 Pathogens 11.6.2 Toxins 11.6.3 Cancer 11.6.4 Infectious Diseases 11.6.5 Automotive, Aerospace, and Consumer Applications Review Exercises References Chapter 12 Nanosensors for Homeland Security 12.1 Necessity of Nanosensors for Trace Explosive Detection 12.2 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) Nanosensors 12.2.1 Curcumin Nanomaterials Surface Energy Transfer (NSET) Probe 12.2.2 Amine-Functionalized Silica Nanoparticles (SiO2-NH2) Colorimetric Sensor 12.2.3 Amine-Modified Gold@Silver Nanoparticles-Based Colorimetric Paper Sensor 12.2.4 Polyethylenimine (PEI)-Capped Downconverting β-NaYF4:Gd3+,Tb3+@PEI Nanophosphor Luminescence Sensor 12.2.5 Janus Amine-Modified Upconverting NaYF4:Yb3+/Er3+ Nanoparticle (UCNP) Micromotor-Based On-Off Luminescence Sensor 12.2.6 AgInS2 (AIS) Quantum Dot (QD) Fluorometric Probe 12.2.7 TNT Recognition Peptide Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNTs) Hybrid Anchored Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Chip 12.2.8 Non-Imprinted and Molecularly Imprinted Bis-Aniline–Cross-Linked Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) Composite/Gold Layer for Surface Plasmon Resonance, and Related Sensors 12.3 TNT/Tetryl (Tetranitro-N-methylamine) Nanosensors 12.3.1 Diaminocyclohexane (DACH)-Functionalized/Thioglycolic Acid (TGA)-Modified Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Sensor for TNT/Tetryl 12.3.2 Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB) Surfactant Stabi​lized​/Diet​hyldi​thioc​arbam​ate-F​uncti​onali​zed Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Sensor for TNT/Tetryl 12.4 Picric Acid Nanosensors 12.4.1 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Nanopeanuts–Modified Screen-Printed Electrode (SPE) 12.4.2 Nanostructured Cuprous Oxide (Cu2O)-Coated Screen-Printed Electrode 12.4.3 β-Cyclodextrin-Functionalized Reduced Graphene Oxide (rGO) Sensor 12.4.4 Conjugated Polymer Nanoparticles (CPNPs) Fluorescence/Current Response Sensor 12.4.5 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Using Hydrophobic Silver Nanopillar Substrates 12.5 Nanosensors for 1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-Triazacyclohexane (RDX) and Other Explosives 12.5.1 Gold Nanoparticles Substrate for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine) Detection by SERS 12.5.2 4-Aminothiophenol (4-ATP)-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Sensor for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine)/HMX (Octa​hydro​-1,3,​5,7-T​etran​itro-​1,3,5​,7-Te​trazo​cine)​ 12.5.3 Cadmium Sulfide-Diphenylamine (CdS QD-DPA) FRET-Based Fluorescence Sensor for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine)/PETN (Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate) 12.5.4 Gold Nanoparticles/Nitroenergetic Memory-Poly(Carbazole-Aniline) P(Cz-co-ANI) Film-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE) for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine), TNT (2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene), DNT (2,4-Dinitrotoluene), and HMX (Octa​hydro​-1,3,​5,7- 12.6 Nanosensor Requirements for Detection of Biothreat Agents 12.7 Anthrax Spore Nanosensors 12.7.1 Europium Nanoparticle (Eu+ NP) Fluorescence Immunoassay (ENIA) for Bacillus anthracis Protective Antigen 12.7.2 Gold Nanoparticle–Amplified DNA Probe-Functionalized Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) Biosensor for B. Anthracis at Gene Level 12.8 Rapid Screening Lateral Flow Plague Bacterium (Yersinia pestis) Nanosensor 12.9 Francisella tularensis Bacterium Nanosensors 12.9.1 Gold Nanoparticle Signal Enhancement–Based Quartz Crystal Microbalance Biosensor and Gold Nanoparticle Absorbance Biosensor 12.9.2 Detection Antibody and Quantum Dots Decorated Apoferritin Nanoprobe 12.10 Brucellosis Bacterium (Brucella) Nanosensors 12.10.1 Gold Nanoparticle–Modified Disposable Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode (SPCE) Immunosensor for Brucella melitensis 12.10.2 Oligonucleotide-Activated Gold Nanoparticle (Oligo-AuNP) Colorimetric Probe for Brucella Abortus 12.10.3 Colored Silica Nanoparticles Colorimetric Immunoassay for Brucella abortus 12.11 Oligonucleotide/Gold Nanoparticles/Magnetic Beads–Based Smallpox Virus (Variola) Colorimetric Sensor 12.12 Ebola Virus (EBOV) Nanosensors 12.12.1 Reduced Graphene Oxide–Based Field Effect Transistor (FET) 12.12.2 Bio-Memristor for Ebola VP40 Matrix Protein Detection 12.12.3 3-D Plasmonic Nanoantenna Sensor 12.13 Ricin Toxin Nanosensors 12.13.1 Silver Enhancement Immunoassay with Interdigitated Array Microelectrodes (IDAMs) 12.13.2 Modified Bio-Barcode Assay (BCA) 12.13.3 Electroluminescence Immunosensor 12.14 Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB) Toxin Nanosensors 12.14.1 SEB Detection Through Hydrogen Evolution Inhibition by Enzymatic Deposition of Metallic Copper on Platinum Nanoparticles (PtNPs)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode 12.14.2 4-Nitrothiophenol (4-NTP)-Encoded Gold Nanoparticle Core/Silver Shell (AuNP@Ag)-Based SERS Immunosensor 12.14.3 Aptamer Recognition Element and Gold Nanoparticle Color Indicator–Based Assay 12.15 Aflatoxin Nanosensors 12.15.1 Polyaniline (PANI) Nanofibers–Gold Nanoparticles Composite–Based Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Disk Electrode for AFB1 12.15.2 Gold Nanodots (AuNDs)/Reduced Graphene Oxide Nanosheets/Indium Tin Oxide Substrate for Raman Spectroscopy and Electrochemical Measurements for AFB1 12.15.3 AFM1 Aptamer–Triggered and DNA-Fueled Signal-On Fluorescence Sensor for AFM1 12.16 Discussion and Conclusions 12.16.1 Nanosensors for Explosives 12.16.1.1 TNT 12.16.1.2 TNT:Tetryl 12.16.1.3 Picric Acid 12.16.1.4 RDX/Other Explosives 12.16.2 Nanosensors for Biothreat Agents Review Exercises References Part VI Powering, Networking, and Trends of Nanosensors Chapter 13 Nanogenerators and Self-Powered Nanosensors 13.1 Devising Ways to Get Rid of Environment-Devastating Batteries 13.1.1 Vibration: The Abundant Energy Source in the Environment 13.1.2 Phenomena for Harvesting Vibrational Energy: Tribo- and Piezoelectricity 13.1.3 Role of Nanotechnology in Energy Harvesting 13.1.4 Other Energy Sources: Do Not Overlook Light and Heat! 13.2 Output Current of Tribo/Piezoelectric Nanogenerators as the Outcome of Second Term in Maxwell’s Displacement Current 13.2.1 Principle of TENG 13.2.2 Principle of PENG 13.3 Triboelectricity-Powered Nanosensors 13.3.1 TENG Made From Micropatterned Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) Membrane/Ag Nanoparticles and Ag Nanowires Composite Covered Aluminum Foil as a Static/Dynamic Pressure Nanosensor 13.3.2 Electrolytic Solution/Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene (FEP) Film TENG Nanosensor for pH Measurement 13.3.3 Ethanol Nanosensor Using Dual-Mode TENG: Water/TiO2 Nanomaterial TENG and SiO2 Nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs)/Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) TENG 13.3.4 Dopamine Nanosensor Using Al/PTFE with Nanoparticle Array TENG 13.3.5 Mercury Ion Nanosensor Using Au Film with Au Nanoparticles/PDMS TENG 13.4 Piezoelectricity-Powered Nanosensors 13.4.1 ZnO Nanowire PENG as a Pressure/Speed Nanosensor 13.4.2 UV and pH Nanosensors with ZnO Nanowire PENG 13.4.3 CNT Hg2+ Ion Nanosensor with ZnO Nanowire PENG 13.4.4 Smelling Electronic Skin (e-Skin) with ZnO Nanowire PENG 13.5 Miscellaneous Powered Nanosensors 13.5.1 Photovoltaic Effect-Powered H2S Nanosensor Using P-SWCNTs/N-Si Heterojunction 13.5.2 Thermoelectricity-Powered Temperature Nanosensor Using Ag2Te Nanow​ires/​Poly(​3,4-e​thyle​nedio​xythi​ophen​e):Po​ly(st​yrene​sulfo​nate)​ (PEDOT:PSS) Composite 13.6 Discussion and Conclusions Review Exercises References Chapter 14 Wireless Nanosensor Networks and IoNT 14.1 Evolution of Wireless Nanosensor Concept 14.2 Promising Communication Approaches for Nanonetworking 14.3 Molecular Communication (MC) 14.3.1 A Common Natural Phenomenon 14.3.2 Steps in Molecular Communication 14.3.3 Advantages of MC 14.3.4 Difficulties of MC 14.4 Electromagnetic Communication (EMC) 14.5 Envisaged Electromagnetic Integrated Nanosensor Module 14.5.1 Nanosensor Unit 14.5.2 Nanoactuation Unit 14.5.3 Power Unit 14.5.4 Nanoprocessor Unit 14.5.5 Nanomemory Unit 14.5.6 Nanoantenna 14.5.7 Nano Transceiver 14.5.8 Alternative Nanotube Electromechanical Nano Transceiver 14.6 WNNs Formation Using EMC Nanosensor Modules: The WNN Architecture 14.7 Frequency Bands of Electromagnetic WNN Operation 14.7.1 THz Channel Model for Intrabody WNNs 14.7.2 Channel Capacity for WNNs 14.7.3 Multi-Path Fading 14.8 Modulation Techniques for Electromagnetic WNNs 14.8.1 Time Spread On-Off Keying (TS-OOK) Modulation Scheme 14.8.2 Symbol Rate Hopping (SRH)-TSOOK Modulation Scheme 14.9 Channel Sharing Protocol in WNN 14.10 Information Routing in WNNs 14.10.1 Multi-Hop Routing 14.10.2 Sensing-Aware Information Routing: The Cross-Layer Protocol 14.11 Failure Mechanisms and Reliability Issues of WNNs 14.12 Internet of Nano Things (IoNT): The Nanomachine 14.13 Discussion and Conclusions Review Exercises References Chapter 15 Overview and Future Trends of Nanosensors 15.1 Introduction 15.1.1 Interfacing Nanosensors with Human Beings 15.1.2 Three Main Types of Nanosensors 15.1.3 Using the Response Properties of the Same Nanomaterial in Different Types of Nanosensors 15.1.4 Nanosensor Science, Engineering, and Technology: Three Interrelated Disciplines 15.1.5 Scope of the Chapter 15.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscope 15.3 Atomic Force Microscope 15.4 Mechanical Nanosensors 15.5 Thermal Nanosensors 15.6 Optical Nanosensors 15.7 Magnetic Nanosensors 15.8 Chemical Nanosensors 15.9 Nanobiosensors 15.10 Nanosensor Fabrication Aspects 15.11 In Vivo Nanosensor Problems 15.12 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Biosensors 15.13 Applications Perspectives of Nanosensors 15.13.1 Nanosensors for Societal Benefits 15.13.2 Nanosensors for Industrial Applications 15.13.3 Nanosensors for Homeland Security 15.14 Interfacing Issues for Nanosensors: Power Consumption and Sample Delivery Problems 15.15 Depletion-Mediated Piezoelectric Actuation for NEMS 15.16 Batteryless Nanosensors 15.17 Networking Nanosensors Wirelessly 15.18 Discussion and Conclusions Review Exercises References Index