Global Groundwater: Source, Scarcity, Sustainability, Security, and Solutions

Description

Global Groundwater: Source, Scarcity, Sustainability, Security, and Solutions presents a compilation of compelling insights into groundwater scenarios within all groundwater-stressed regions across the world. Thematic sub-sections include groundwater studies on sources, scarcity, sustainability, security, and solutions. The chapters in these sub-sections provide unique knowledge on groundwater for scientists, planners, and policymakers, and are written by leading global experts and researchers. Global Groundwater: Source, Scarcity, Sustainability, Security, and Solutions provides a unique, unparalleled opportunity to integrate the knowledge on groundwater, ranging from availability to pollution, nation-level groundwater management to transboundary aquifer governance, and global-scale review to local-scale case-studies. Global Groundwater Copyright Contents List of Contributors About the Editors Forewords I Foreword on groundwater as a resource II Foreword on groundwater for society III Foreword on groundwater for sustainability IV Foreword on groundwater for future V Foreword on groundwater research Preface Acknowledgment Disclaimer Introduction: Why Study Global Groundwater? References 1 Global groundwater: from scarcity to security through sustainability and solutions 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Groundwater source and availability 1.3 Groundwater scarcity 1.3.1 Quantity 1.3.2 Groundwater quality 1.4 Groundwater sustainability and security 1.4.1 Groundwater–food–energy nexus 1.4.2 Urbanization 1.4.3 Groundwater trade and hydro-economics 1.5 Solutions 1.5.1 Enhancing irrigation and urban groundwater efficiency 1.5.2 Groundwater rejuvenation 1.5.3 Desalination 1.6 Conclusion References 2 Groundwater of carbonate aquifers 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Carbonate geochemistry and hydrochemical evolution 2.3 Porosity and permeability 2.4 Recharge and flow 2.5 Water supply and environmental issues 2.6 Challenges in monitoring and modeling 2.7 Conclusion References 3 Groundwater resources in Australia—their occurrence, management, and future challenges 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Groundwater resources in Australia 3.3 Historical development of groundwater 3.4 Evolution of groundwater management 3.5 Current groundwater usage 3.6 Groundwater management issues 3.6.1 Overuse and overallocation of groundwater 3.6.2 Groundwater-dependent ecosystems 3.6.3 Impacts of groundwater extraction on surface-water systems 3.6.4 Effect of climate change on groundwater resources 3.6.5 Impacts of mining on groundwater resources 3.6.6 Land and groundwater salinization 3.6.7 Seawater intrusion 3.7 Future challenges 3.7.1 Managed aquifer recharge 3.7.2 Declining resources for understanding and managing groundwater 3.8 Conclusion References Further reading 4 Groundwater storage dynamics in the Himalayan river basins and impacts of global change in the Anthropocene 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Hydrology and climate of Himalayan river basins 4.2.1 The Indus river basin 4.2.2 The Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna river basin 4.2.3 The Irrawaddy river basin 4.3 Groundwater for drinking and agricultural use 4.4 Groundwater storage dynamics in Himalayan river basins 4.4.1 Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment: Earth observation satellite monitoring 4.4.2 Dynamics in Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment terrestrial water storage 4.4.3 Mapping groundwater storage using Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment 4.4.4 Reported changes of groundwater storage and impacts of global change 4.5 Concluding discussion Acknowledgments References 5 Groundwater variations in the North China Plain: monitoring and modeling under climate change and human activities toward... 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Impacts of human activities on groundwater in the North China Plain 5.3 Climate change impact on groundwater in the North China Plain 5.4 China’s South-to-North Water Diversion 5.5 Review on groundwater storage assessment in the North China Plain Acknowledgment References 6 Emerging groundwater and surface water trends in Alberta, Canada 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Data and methods 6.2.1 Study region 6.2.2 Groundwater level observation 6.2.3 Observations of surface water 6.2.4 Rainfall and snowmelt water 6.3 Results and discussions 6.3.1 Rainfall and snowmelt water 6.3.2 Surface water level changes 6.3.3 Groundwater level changes 6.4 Summary Acknowledgments References 7 Groundwater irrigation and implication in the Nile river basin 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Surface water in the Nile basin 7.3 Land use and irrigation in the Nile basin 7.4 Groundwater in the Nile basin 7.5 Aquifers in Nile riparian countries 7.5.1 Groundwater in Egypt 7.5.2 Groundwater in Sudan and South Sudan 7.5.3 Groundwater in Ethiopia 7.5.4 Groundwater in the Extended Lake Victoria basin 7.6 Discussion and conclusion References 8 Groundwater availability and security in the Kingston Basin, Jamaica 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The Kingston Hydrologic Basin 8.2.1 Population and water supply 8.2.2 Hydrogeology of the KHB 8.2.3 Climate of the KHB 8.3 Methodology and analytical procedures 8.3.1 Field work 8.3.2 Water quality analysis 8.4 Results and discussion 8.5 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 9 Transboundary aquifers: a shared subsurface asset, in urgent need of sound governance 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Definition of transboundary aquifer: international and intranational 9.3 Governance—collaboration, potential dispute resolution 9.4 Water availability as a driver for governance 9.5 Current global inventory and classification of transboundary aquifers 9.6 Review of recent developments—the Red Queen effect 9.7 The place of transboundary aquifers in national priorities 9.8 SDGs as a driver toward sound governance of transboundary aquifers 9.9 The climate change megatrend and relevance to transboundary aquifers 9.10 Transboundary aquifers under high developmental stress 9.11 Estimating the urgency of sound governance as a function of water abundance/water scarcity 9.12 Case history: the Stampriet aquifer—Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa 9.13 Hurdles to progress in intercountry dialogue—the “invisibility cape”? 9.14 The hiatus in the progress to adoption of the Draft Articles 9.15 Conclusion: light at the end of the tunnel Conflict of interest Acknowledgment References 10 Transboundary groundwater of the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna River delta system 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Geologic and geomorphologic setting 10.3 Aquifer framework 10.4 Groundwater flow system 10.5 Hydrogeochemistry 10.6 Groundwater arsenic contamination 10.7 Policy interventions and management options for arsenic mitigation References Further reading 11 Groundwater drought: environmental controls and monitoring 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Environmental controls on groundwater 11.2.1 Precipitation 11.2.2 Subsurface hydrogeological conditions 11.2.3 Large-scale climate phenomena 11.3 Groundwater drought monitoring 11.3.1 Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment data assimilation for groundwater drought monitoring 11.3.2 Other groundwater drought indicators 11.4 Characteristics of groundwater drought at the global domain 11.5 Discussions and future research References 12 Groundwater scarcity in the Middle East 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Water resources: current use and future trends 12.3 Impacts of water scarcity 12.3.1 Water resources and climate change 12.3.2 Water quality 12.4 Water resources management 12.4.1 Mitigation to water scarcity 12.4.1.1 Desalination 12.4.1.2 Treated wastewater reuse 12.4.1.3 Rainwater harvesting and artificial aquifer recharge 12.5 Case studies 12.5.1 Jordan River 12.5.2 Tigris–Euphrates River 12.5.3 Nile River 12.5.3.1 Victoria Nile or the White Nile 12.5.3.2 Blue Nile River basin References 13 Groundwater scarcity and management in the arid areas in East Africa 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Typical characteristics of the dryland areas 13.3 Typologies of hydrogeology difficulties in arid areas in the East Africa 13.3.1 Arid volcanic mountains (old rugged volcanics) 13.3.2 Rift volcanics and pyroclastics 13.3.3 Nazareth series ignimbrites 13.3.4 Extensive limestone and sandstone plateaus, rocky hills, and plains in arid environments 13.3.5 Extensive loose inland alluvio-lacustrine, inland deltaic, and coastal plain aquifers 13.3.5.1 Permissible hydrogeology environments 13.4 Current and past drinking water delivery practices 13.5 Securing water in difficult hydrogeological environments 13.5.1 Identifying and protecting viable aquifers 13.5.2 Adaptation of customary water schemes 13.5.3 Enhancing water availability by water harvesting 13.5.4 Water quality management 13.5.5 Long distance and interbasin water transfer 13.5.6 Investing in sustainability of existing systems 13.6 Policy and practice implication Acknowledgment References Further reading 14 Global geogenic groundwater pollution 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Global distribution of geogenic groundwater pollutants 14.2.1 Arsenic 14.2.2 Fluoride 14.2.3 Selenium 14.2.4 Uranium 14.2.5 Salinity 14.3 Conclusion References 15 Out of sight, but not out of mind: Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in groundwater 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Analytical methods for monitoring per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances 15.3 Sources of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances to the environment 15.3.1 Aqueous film-forming foam 15.3.2 Landfill leachate 15.3.3 Industrial sources 15.3.4 Other sources 15.4 Occurrence studies 15.5 Removal of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances from groundwater 15.5.1 Granular activated carbon 15.5.2 Ion-exchange resins 15.5.3 Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis 15.6 Conclusion References 16 Geogenic-contaminated groundwater in China 16.1 Introduction 16.2 The distribution and formation of geogenic-contaminated groundwater 16.2.1 High-salinity groundwater 16.2.2 High-Fe and -Mn groundwater 16.2.3 High-As groundwater 16.2.4 High-fluoride groundwater 16.2.5 High-/low-iodine groundwater 16.2.6 High-nitrogen groundwater 16.2.7 Other trace elements 16.3 Cooccurrence of different geogenic-contaminated groundwater components 16.3.1 High salinity and fluoride 16.3.2 Arsenic and fluoride 16.3.3 Iron, manganese, and ammonia 16.4 Geogenic-contaminated groundwater affected by anthropogenic activities 16.4.1 Further salinization of groundwater 16.4.2 Elevated groundwater hardness 16.4.3 Cross contamination of aquifers 16.4.4 Trace element release/sequester due to redox change 16.5 Conclusion References 17 Screening of emerging organic pollutants in the typical hygrogeological units of China 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Materials and methods 17.2.1 Study area and sample collection 17.2.2 Chemicals 17.2.3 Analytical method 17.2.4 Risk characterization 17.3 Results and discussion 17.3.1 Presence of antibiotics in groundwater 17.3.2 Statistical analysis 17.3.3 Environmental risk assessment 17.3.4 Screening of antibiotics in groundwater 17.4 Conclusion and further research Acknowledgments References 18 Groundwater pollution of Pearl River Delta 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Study area 18.2.1 Hydrogeological and geological conditions 18.2.2 Characteristics of urbanization and industrialization in the Pearl River Delta 18.3 Materials and methods 18.4 Results and discussion 18.4.1 Groundwater chemistry 18.4.2 Groundwater quality and main impact chemicals 18.4.3 Groundwater contamination 18.4.3.1 Arsenic, manganese, and iron contamination in groundwater 18.4.3.2 Lead, nickel, and mercury contamination in groundwater 18.4.3.3 Nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, and iodide in groundwater 18.4.3.4 Organic contaminants in groundwater 18.5 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 19 Hydrochemical characteristics and quality assessment of water from different sources in Northern Morocco 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Material and methods 19.3 Hydrochemistry 19.3.1 Source water chemical facies 19.3.2 Quality of source waters for irrigation 19.4 Control of chemical element concentrations 19.4.1 Binary ion correlations 19.4.1.1 Na+–Cl− correlation 19.4.1.2 K+–Cl− correlation 19.4.1.3 Ca2+–HCO3− correlation 19.4.1.4 Ca2+–SO42− correlation 19.4.2 Cl–SO4–HCO3 diagram 19.4.3 Index of base exchange 19.4.4 Water standards and potability 19.4.5 Sodium and potassium 19.4.6 Calcium and magnesium 19.4.7 Chlorides 19.4.8 Sulfates and bicarbonates 19.5 Principal component analysis 19.5.1 Variable space 19.5.2 Individual space 19.6 Water minerals equilibrium 19.6.1 Carbonates equilibrium 19.6.2 Silica equilibrium 19.6.3 N2–Ar–CH4 gases diagram 19.7 Conclusion References 20 Arsenic in groundwater in the United States: research highlights since 2000, current concerns and next steps 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Research on arsenic in groundwater: 2000–20 20.2.1 Sources of Arsenic in groundwater 20.2.2 Key biogeochemical processes that influence As cycling 20.2.2.1 Arsenic species in water 20.2.2.2 Adsorption reactions 20.2.2.3 Redox processes 20.2.3 Tools for studying arsenic 20.2.3.1 Analytical tools 20.2.3.1.1 Measuring arsenic speciation 20.2.3.1.2 Sequential extraction 20.2.3.1.3 Spectroscopic methods 20.2.3.2 Spatial maps 20.2.3.3 Modeling 20.2.3.3.1 Reactive transport models 20.2.3.3.2 Statistical models 20.2.4 Mechanisms of arsenic release to groundwater 20.3 Hydrogeochemical settings for arsenic in groundwater in the United States 20.3.1 Sand and gravel aquifers 20.3.1.1 Alluvial aquifers 20.3.1.2 Basin-fill aquifers 20.3.1.3 High Plains aquifer 20.3.2 Basaltic rock aquifers 20.3.3 Glacial aquifers 20.3.4 Sedimentary rock aquifers 20.3.4.1 Special case: Mesozoic Rift Basins 20.3.5 Crystalline and meta-sedimentary rock aquifers 20.3.6 Coastal plain (semiconsolidated) aquifers 20.3.6.1 Atlantic coastal plain 20.3.6.2 Southeastern/Gulf Coastal Plain 20.3.7 Geothermal areas (western United States) 20.4 Research highlights from 2000 to 2020 20.4.1 Nationwide datasets show statistical and spatial patterns of groundwater As 20.4.1.1 The public has more access to arsenic data 20.4.2 Statistical models yield can predict drivers of arsenic release to groundwater 20.4.3 Statistical models can produce probability maps of arsenic risk 20.4.4 Arsenic concentrations may (but do not always) change over time 20.4.5 Human activities can promote arsenic release to groundwater 20.4.5.1 Impact of well pumping 20.4.5.2 Managed aquifer recharge 20.4.5.3 Introduction of anthropogenic organic carbon can drive reductive dissolution 20.4.6 Research leads to improved technology for arsenic detection and treatment 20.4.6.1 Improved remediation methods 20.4.6.2 Development of biosensors to detect As 20.5 Current concerns about arsenic in groundwater in the United States 20.5.1 Most, but not all, public water supplies are meeting the drinking water standard 20.5.2 Homeowners are responsible for testing of private well water 20.6 Next steps 20.6.1 Required testing would improve identification of wells with elevated As 20.6.2 More support is needed for homeowners, especially in areas of high risk 20.6.3 More data are needed for prediction of spatial and temporal patterns 20.6.4 Education and effective communication can improve awareness and action 20.6.4.1 Tools and training for analysis of big data sets 20.6.4.2 Communication with the public about the risks of As References 21 Hydrogeochemical characterization of groundwater quality in the states of Texas and Florida, United States 21.1 Groundwater quality in Texas 21.1.1 Edwards–Trinity plateau aquifer 21.1.2 Ogallala aquifer 21.1.3 Seymour aquifer 21.1.4 Pecos Valley Aquifer 21.1.5 Carrizo aquifer 21.1.6 Barnett Shale aquifer 21.2 Aquifers in Florida 21.2.1 Floridan aquifer system 21.2.2 Sand-and-gravel aquifer 21.2.3 Biscayne aquifer Acknowledgments References 22 Groundwater pollution in Pakistan 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Groundwater quality 22.2.1 Biological contamination of groundwater 22.2.1.1 Punjab 22.2.1.2 Sindh 22.2.1.3 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 22.2.1.4 Azad Kashmir and Gilgit Baltistan 22.3 Chemical contamination 22.3.1 Organic pollution of groundwater 22.4 Inorganic pollution of groundwater 22.4.1 Trace and heavy metals 22.4.1.1 Arsenic 22.4.1.2 Cadmium 22.4.1.3 Lead 22.4.1.4 Nickel 22.4.1.5 Iron 22.4.1.6 Zinc 22.4.2 Major anions 22.4.2.1 Nitrates 22.4.2.2 Phosphates 22.4.2.3 Sulfates 22.4.2.4 Fluoride References 23 Groundwater of Afghanistan (potential capacity, scarcity, security issues, and solutions) 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Topography and hydrogeology of Afghanistan 23.3 Scarcity of groundwater quality and quantity 23.3.1 Quality challenges of groundwater in Afghanistan 23.3.2 Quantity challenges of groundwater in Afghanistan 23.4 Afghanistan groundwater sustainability 23.5 Afghanistan groundwater security 23.6 Solutions References 24 Groundwater resources sustainability 24.1 Sustainability and sustainable development 24.2 Sustainability of groundwater services 24.2.1 Groundwater services 24.2.2 Potential threats to groundwater services 24.2.2.1 Intensive groundwater abstraction 24.2.2.2 Artificial drainage 24.2.2.3 Salinization and pollution 24.2.2.4 Climate change and sea-level rise 24.3 Approaches to pursuing, restoring, or enhancing groundwater resources sustainability 24.3.1 The umbrella: groundwater governance and management 24.3.2 Hydrogeological approaches to defining sustainability limits of abstraction 24.3.3 Enhancing groundwater recharge 24.3.4 Water demand management 24.3.5 Groundwater quality management 24.3.6 Adaptation to climate change and sea-level rise 24.3.7 Environmental management 24.4 Geographic variation of groundwater resources sustainability 24.4.1 General comments 24.4.2 Groundwater resources sustainability endangered or disrupted by progressive storage depletion 24.4.3 Groundwater resources sustainability endangered or disrupted by water quality degradation 24.4.4 Groundwater resources sustainability constrained by environmental considerations 24.5 Conclusion References 25 Sustainability of groundwater used in agricultural production and trade worldwide 25.1 Introduction 25.1.1 Water use for global food production and virtual water flows via international food trade 25.1.2 Sustainability of groundwater use overall and in particular for global food production 25.1.3 Quantification of groundwater depletion for food trade 25.2 Conclusion Financial support References 26 Groundwater and society: enmeshed issues, interdisciplinary approaches 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Socio-hydrology and socio-geohydrology: modeling of the groundwater–society interactions improved with stakeholders’ p... 26.2.1 Introduction to socio-hydrology 26.2.2 Socio-hydrology and groundwater 26.2.3 Incorporating stakeholders’ perspectives: a “public” turn for socio-hydrology 26.3 Political ecology and the hydrosocial cycle: paying attention to power relations and discourses embedded in water circ... 26.3.1 Political ecology of water 26.3.2 The hydrosocial cycle: a critical rethinking of “water” 26.4 Mobilizing hydrosocial analyses to capture ground (water) realities 26.4.1 Dispossession of irrigating farmers through institutions and infrastructures 26.4.2 State and “scientific” versus local knowledge of water 26.4.3 Groundwater and politics of scale 26.4.4 Trajectories from “safe and good” groundwater to “bad” citizens 26.5 Discussion: what interdisciplinarity for enmeshed issues? 26.6 Conclusion References 27 Groundwater sustainability in cold and arid regions 27.1 Importance of groundwater in hydrological systems 27.1.1 Cold regions 27.1.2 Arid and semi-arid regions 27.2 The characteristics of the hydrological cycle 27.2.1 The effect of permafrost distribution, snow and /or ice on groundwater systems in cold regions 27.2.2 Hydrological processes and its effect on groundwater quality in arid and semi-arid regions 27.3 Groundwater modeling and challenges 27.3.1 Model development in the cold regions 27.3.2 Model application and challenges in the arid and semi-arid regions 27.4 The effect of climate change 27.4.1 Cold regions 27.4.2 Arid and semi-arid regions 27.5 Integrated water management for groundwater sustainability Acknowledgements References 28 Groundwater in Australia—understanding the challenges of its sustainable use 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Aquifers in Australia 28.3 The Great Artesian Basin 28.4 The Murray–Darling Basin 28.5 The Perth Basin 28.6 The Canning Basin 28.7 The Daly Basin 28.8 The Otway Basin 28.9 Groundwater uses 28.10 Groundwater entitlements and extractions 28.11 Groundwater salinity 28.12 Australian ecosystems and groundwater 28.13 Concluding remarks References Further reading 29 Groundwater recharge and sustainability in Brazil 29.1 Insights from groundwater availability in Brazil 29.2 Overview of global groundwater recharge dynamics 29.3 Studies on recharge in Brazil 29.3.1 Recharge methods used in Brazilian studies 29.4 Challenges and future directions toward a groundwater sustainability in Brazil Acknowledgments References 30 Groundwater management in Brazil: current status and challenges for sustainable utilization 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Groundwater resources of Brazil 30.2.1 Physical and climatic characteristics 30.2.2 Hydrogeological features of aquifers 30.3 Groundwater resource management in Brazil 30.3.1 Background of water resource management 30.3.2 National laws/legislation 30.3.3 Integrated management of surface water and groundwater 30.3.4 Management of transboundary groundwater 30.3.5 Management of mineral water resources 30.3.6 Groundwater monitoring and assessment 30.4 Alternatives for groundwater management and water sourcing 30.4.1 Adopting rainwater harvesting 30.4.2 Artificial groundwater recharge and reuse of wastewater 30.4.3 Desalination 30.5 The hydroschizophrenia of groundwater management 30.6 Final considerations and current challenges References 31 Challenges of sustainable groundwater development and management in Bangladesh: vision 2050 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Groundwater occurrences in Bangladesh 31.3 Groundwater quality and concerns 31.3.1 Occurrences and distribution of arsenic 31.3.2 Occurrences and distribution of salinity 31.4 Groundwater uses and impacts of abstractions 31.4.1 Domestic uses in rural and urban areas 31.4.2 Irrigation uses 31.4.3 Industrial uses 31.5 Major challenges 31.5.1 Meeting increased demands in 2050 31.5.2 Impacts of climate change 31.5.3 Arsenic and other contamination issues 31.5.4 Transboundary issues 31.6 Sustainable groundwater management: vision 2050 31.6.1 Surface water harnessing 31.6.2 Better irrigation water management 31.6.3 Groundwater monitoring, abstraction controls, and licensing 31.6.4 Pollution abatement and control 31.6.5 Applications of managed aquifer recharge 31.6.6 Wastewater reuse 31.6.7 Awareness building 31.6.8 Judicial use of deep groundwater 31.6.9 Groundwater governance 31.6.10 Research and development activities 31.7 Groundwater: resource out of sight but not to be out of mind Acknowledgments References 32 Integrating groundwater for water security in Cape Town, South Africa 32.1 Introduction 32.2 Situating Cape Town 32.2.1 The Day Zero drought 32.2.2 Water provision and security 32.3 Groundwater opportunities 32.3.1 Table Mountain Group aquifers 32.3.2 Sandveld Group aquifers 32.4 Groundwater management challenges 32.4.1 Physical dimensions 32.4.2 Human dimensions 32.5 Conclusion References 33 Drivers for progress in groundwater management in Lao People’s Democratic Republic 33.1 Introduction 33.2 Groundwater resources in Lao People’s Democratic Republic 33.2.1 Groundwater systems 33.2.2 Groundwater use 33.3 Major groundwater challenges 33.3.1 Quantity and quality-related issues 33.3.2 State of groundwater knowledge and information systems 33.3.3 Other barriers to groundwater management 33.4 Recent efforts to strengthen groundwater governance 33.4.1 Overview of policy, institutional, and legal changes 33.4.1.1 Changes in government policy 33.4.1.2 Changes in institutional arrangements 33.4.1.3 Revised legal arrangements 33.4.1.4 Changes enhanced by projects and investments 33.4.2 Enhancing groundwater knowledge and data management 33.4.2.1 National- and local-scale assessments in priority areas increase local knowledge 33.4.2.2 Recent policies and draft data systems aim at formalizing and systematizing data collection 33.4.2.3 Top-down versus bottom-up approaches 33.4.2.4 Modeling efforts aim at supporting groundwater planning 33.4.3 Mechanisms of stakeholder coordination and involvement 33.4.3.1 Existing issues in government coordination and overall stakeholder communication 33.4.3.2 Institutional mapping and consultation workshops as a preliminary form of cross-sector policy coordination 33.4.3.3 Consultation of stakeholders in recent groundwater policy and legislation drafting 33.4.3.4 Communities newly integrated in recent policy and legislation 33.4.4 Development of human resources and groundwater-management capacity 33.4.4.1 Existing issues with institutional and technical capacities 33.4.4.2 Training programs generate institutional capacity for groundwater management 33.4.4.3 Teaching and research capacity building to develop a community of groundwater experts 33.4.4.4 Technical capacity disseminated to groundwater practitioners 33.5 Outlook: pathways forward for Lao People’s Democratic Republic 33.5.1 Effective policy making and implementation 33.5.1.1 Promoting cross-sectoral coordination 33.5.1.2 Promoting strategic planning of groundwater resources 33.5.2 Strengthening institutional and human resource capacity 33.5.3 Continuing efforts in applied research 33.5.4 Participation of stakeholders 33.5.4.1 Awareness raising 33.5.4.2 Sustainable financing arrangements Acknowledgments Acronyms References 34 Groundwater sustainability and security in South Asia 34.1 Introduction 34.2 Data 34.2.1 Study region 34.2.2 WaterGAP3 model 34.3 Results and discussions 34.3.1 Evapotranspiration and groundwater recharge 34.3.2 Contamination issues 34.3.3 Population 34.4 Summary and way forward Acknowledgments References 35 Role of measuring the aquifers for sustainably managing groundwater resource in India 35.1 Introduction 35.2 Regional aquifer framework 35.3 Spatiotemporal behavior of hydraulic heads and replenishable resources 35.4 How much groundwater we are extracting 35.5 Expanding groundwater contamination 35.6 Measuring and understanding the aquifers 35.7 The sustainable management plan—an example 35.8 Way forward References Further reading 36 Balancing livelihoods and environment: political economy of groundwater irrigation in India* 36.1 Evolution of Indian irrigation 36.2 Changing organization of the irrigation economy 36.3 Energy-irrigation nexus 36.4 Socioeconomic significance of the groundwater boom 36.5 The sustainability challenge 36.6 Sustainable groundwater governance 36.6.1 Direct regulation through legal framework and administrative action 36.6.2 Community-based groundwater management 36.6.3 Indirect instruments—energy pricing and rationing 36.6.4 The advent of solar irrigation 36.7 Conclusion: from resource development to management mode References 37 The future of groundwater science and research 37.1 Introduction 37.2 How are fundamental groundwater perspectives changing?—“Darcy is dead” 37.3 Fossil fuel energy, geothermal energy, and mineral resources—the groundwater connection and the future 37.4 Groundwater can be a deep subject 37.5 The subterranean biological world and groundwater-dependent ecosystems 37.6 Coast to coast 37.7 Under the ocean 37.8 Extraterrestrial hydrology—the sky’s not the limit 37.9 Groundwater quality and emerging contaminants 37.10 The new tools 37.11 Laws, regulation, guidance, and governance of groundwater 37.12 Socio-hydrogeology in the future of groundwater science 37.13 Education and outreach 37.14 The unexpected challenges Acknowledgments References Further reading 38 Technologies to enhance sustainable groundwater use 38.1 Technology levers to enhance groundwater security 38.2 Groundwater mapping and management 38.3 Managing aquifer recharge 38.4 Managing saline groundwater intrusion 38.5 Improving groundwater-use efficiency 38.5.1 Improving irrigation and agricultural efficiency 38.5.2 Improving household water distribution and use efficiency 38.5.3 Improving industrial water-use efficiency 38.6 Purifying contaminated groundwater 38.6.1 Removing salt from brackish groundwater 38.6.2 Removing arsenic from groundwater 38.6.3 Removing fluoride from groundwater 38.6.4 Killing biological pathogens in groundwater 38.7 Improving groundwater access 38.7.1 Well digging and drilling 38.7.2 Groundwater pumping 38.8 Conclusion References 39 Applications of Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) in global groundwater study 39.1 Introduction 39.2 GRACE and GFO missions and data products 39.3 Quantification of groundwater change using Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment 39.4 Gravity recovery and climate experiment applications in groundwater storage change 39.5 Major error sources of Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment–estimated groundwater change 39.6 Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment data assimilation 39.7 Summary References 40 Use of machine learning and deep learning methods in groundwater 40.1 Introduction 40.1.1 Importance of advanced data-driven methods in groundwater resources 40.2 Global literature review 40.2.1 Groundwater quantity 40.2.2 Groundwater quality 40.3 Application of some of the widely used artificial intelligence methods in India 40.3.1 Methods description 40.3.1.1 Machine learning–based methods 40.3.1.1.1 Artificial neural networks 40.3.1.1.2 Random forests 40.3.1.2 Deep learning–based methods 40.3.1.2.1 Convolutional neural network (CNN) 40.3.2 Case studies from India 40.3.2.1 Application of machine learning 40.3.2.1.1 Prediction of GWL in India based on GWL and NDVI as input in ANN modeling 40.3.2.1.2 Application of random forest in groundwater contamination prediction in India 40.3.2.2 Application of deep learning 40.3.2.2.1 Using a combination of physically based modeling and CNN to learn the spatiotemporal pattern from satellite and ... References 41 Desalination of brackish groundwater to improve water quality and water supply 41.1 Introduction 41.1.1 Brackish groundwater composition 41.1.2 Desalination 41.2 Desalination process 41.2.1 Membrane fouling and pretreatment 41.2.2 Reverse osmosis 41.2.2.1 Pretreatment 41.2.2.2 Desalination mechanism 41.2.2.3 Membranes 41.2.2.4 System design 41.2.2.5 Energy recovery devices 41.2.2.6 Posttreatment 41.2.3 Electrodialysis 41.2.3.1 Pretreatment 41.2.3.2 Desalination mechanism 41.2.3.3 Membranes 41.2.3.4 System design 41.2.3.5 Posttreatment 41.2.4 Energy consumption using conventional energy sources 41.2.5 Economics of desalination 41.2.6 Brine management 41.2.7 Brine disposal 41.2.8 Brine treatment 41.2.9 Desalination using renewable energy sources 41.2.10 Emerging desalination technologies 41.2.11 Nanofiltration 41.2.12 Semibatch reverse osmosis 41.3 Global and national trends in desalination 41.3.1 Global trends 41.3.1.1 Annual desalination expenditures 41.3.1.2 Geographic region 41.3.1.3 Target end use 41.3.2 National trends Acknowledgments References 42 Desalination of deep groundwater for freshwater supplies 42.1 Introduction 42.2 Groundwater desalination—influencing factors 42.2.1 Motivation for groundwater desalination 42.2.2 Considerations for groundwater desalination 42.2.3 Environmental impacts of groundwater desalination 42.3 Desalination technology assessment 42.4 Groundwater desalination in the United States 42.5 Groundwater desalination in developing countries 42.6 Decision-making for municipal desalination plants 42.7 Conclusion References 43 Quantifying future water environment using numerical simulations: a scenario-based approach for sustainable groundwater management plan in Medan, Indonesia 43.1 Introduction 43.2 Study area 43.3 Methodology 43.3.1 Different drivers 43.3.1.1 Precipitation change 43.3.1.2 Land use change 43.3.1.3 Population growth 43.3.2 Urban flood 43.3.3 Water quality 43.3.3.1 Basic information regarding the model and data requirement 43.3.3.2 Model setup 43.4 Results and discussion 43.4.1 Precipitation change 43.4.2 Land use change 43.4.3 Urban flood 43.4.4 Water quality 43.5 Conclusion and recommendation References 44 Managed aquifer recharge with various water sources for irrigation and domestic use: a perspective of the Israeli experience 44.1 Introduction 44.1.1 Why Israel has a significant managed aquifer recharge experience? 44.1.2 The Israeli Coastal Aquifer 44.2 Managed aquifer recharge of ephemeral stream floods in the coastal aquifer through infiltration basins, increasing fre... 44.3 Managed aquifer recharge of groundwater and especially lake water through wells for freshwater supply (1965–90 and ree... 44.3.1 Technical considerations concerning managed aquifer recharge through wells 44.3.2 Some history and experience from the managed aquifer recharge through well period 1965–90 44.3.3 New thoughts and experiments on managed aquifer recharge through wells due to availability of water of better qualit... 44.4 Managed aquifer recharge of secondary effluents in infiltration basins—the Shafdan water reclamation system for irriga... 44.5 Managed aquifer recharge of surplus desalinated seawater through infiltration basins (2014–present) References 45 MAR model: a blessing adaptation for hard-to-reach livelihood in thirsty Barind Tract, Bangladesh 45.1 Introduction 45.2 Challenges of groundwater resource management plan 45.3 Groundwater resource potentiality 45.4 Potential zones for groundwater recharge and selection of sites for artificial recharge of groundwater 45.5 Implementation of managed aquifer recharge model 45.5.1 Piloting of managed aquifer recharge model at household level—pioneer attempt during 2013–16 45.5.2 Managed aquifer recharge model as integrated water resource management strategy in Barind Tract since 2015 45.5.3 Impact assessment of managed aquifer recharge model as integrated water resource management strategy 45.6 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Index