Electrochemical Methods of Nanostructure Preparation

Description

Preface of Series Editor Contents About the Author About the Series Editor Abbreviations Remarks on the Notation of the Alloys, Composites and Multilayers Part I Background 1 Introduction 1.1 The “Nano” Era 1.2 The Concept of This Book References 2 Electrochemistry and Electrodeposition 2.1 The Goal of This Overview 2.2 Charge Transfer in Heterogeneous Electrochemical Systems 2.3 Electrodes and Electrochemical Cells 2.4 Electrode Classification Based on the Electrode Reaction(s) 2.5 The Nature of the Electron Conductor/Solution Interface 2.6 Electrodes in Experimental Cells 2.7 Polarization and Electrochemical Devices 2.8 Basic Electrode Kinetics 2.8.1 Activation Control 2.8.2 Influence of Reactant Transport on the Electrode Processes 2.8.3 Basic Voltammetric Experiments for Metal Deposition 2.9 Towards the Electrodeposition of Metals: Crystals and Their Surfaces 2.9.1 Basic Crystallography 2.9.2 Defects on Crystal Surfaces and Within Crystals 2.10 Nucleation During Electrochemical Phase Formation 2.10.1 Nucleation and Growth Modes 2.11 Major Factors of the Grain Structure of Electrodeposited Metals 2.12 Composition Aspects of Alloy Electrodeposition 2.12.1 Selection of the Variables 2.12.2 Basic Codeposition Modes 2.12.3 Structural Consequences of Alloy Formation 2.13 Behaviour of Metals During Anodic Polarization References 3 Experimental Methods in Characterization of Nanosystems 3.1 The Nature of Such Methodological Overviews 3.2 Non-destructive Analysis Methods with Irradiation 3.2.1 Classification of the Irradiation-Based Methods 3.2.2 Diffraction Methods 3.2.3 Methods Involving Ionization and Used for Chemical Analysis 3.3 Thermal Analysis 3.4 Mechanical Tests 3.5 Scanning Probe Methods 3.6 Corrosion Studies References Part II Nanostructured Materials Obtained by Using Non-structured Substrates of Large Surface Area 4 Ultrathin Layers 4.1 Layer Preparation Methods Based Solely on UPD Processes 4.1.1 Atomic Layer Deposition Processes 4.1.2 Layer-by-Layer Electrodeposition Based on ALD 4.1.3 Optimization of the EC-ALD Processes 4.1.4 Characterization of the Composition, Structure and Semiconductor Properties of EC-ALD Layers 4.1.5 Multicomponent and Superlattice Structures Obtained with EC-ALD 4.1.6 Various Nanostructure Deposition Processes Based on UPD Principles 4.2 Combination of UPD with Other Surface-Area-Limited Processes 4.2.1 Surface-Limited Redox Replacement Processes 4.2.2 Substrates and Displacement Pairs in SLRR Processes 4.2.3 Structural Aspects of the SLRR Processes 4.2.4 Application of SLRR Deposits 4.3 Non-UPD Deposition of Ultrathin Metallic Layers 4.3.1 Electrodeposition of Ultrathin Layers with Self-limiting Processes 4.3.2 Atomic-Scale Observation of the Initial Phase of the Layer Growth 4.3.3 Magnetization of Ultrathin Electrodeposited Layers References 5 Compositionally Modulated and Multilayered Deposits 5.1 On the Electrodeposition of Nanolaminated Materials 5.2 Multiple-Bath Methods 5.2.1 Common Features of the Multiple-Bath Methods 5.2.2 The Sequential Immersion Method 5.2.3 Cell Configurations with a Rotating Cathode 5.2.4 Bath Change by Using Flow Cells With Multiple Solution Inlets 5.3 The Single-Bath Method 5.3.1 Impact of the Codeposition Mode of the Components on the Composition Modulation During Two-Pulse Plating 5.3.2 Multilayer Formation with Single-Pulse Plating and Displacement 5.3.3 Multilayer Formation with Various Electrical Waveforms 5.3.4 Multilayer Formation with Transport Rate Modulation 5.4 Properties of Electrodeposited CMAs 5.4.1 Composition Variation in Ultrathin Electrodeposited Alloy Layers 5.4.2 Structural Features of Deposits With Modulated Composition 5.4.3 Mechanical Properties of Compositionally Modulated Deposits 5.4.4 Corrosion Properties of Compositionally Modulated Deposits 5.4.5 Magnetic and Magnetoresistance Properties of Electrodeposited Multilayers 5.4.6 Magneto-ionics 5.4.7 Annealing Behaviour of Electrodeposited Multilayers References 6 Nanocrystalline Deposits 6.1 General Considerations Concerning Nanocrystalline Deposits 6.1.1 Scope of This Chapter 6.1.2 About the History of the Research on Nanocrystalline Materials 6.1.3 Electrochemical Techniques in the Deposition of Nanocrystalline Materials 6.1.4 Properties of Nanocrystalline Materials 6.2 Nanocrystalline Deposits of Metallic Elements 6.2.1 Noble Metals: Au, Ag and Pd 6.2.2 Copper 6.2.3 Nickel 6.2.4 Miscellaneous Transition Metals 6.3 Electrodeposited Nanocrystalline Alloys 6.3.1 Ni–Cu Alloys 6.3.2 Mutual Alloys of the Iron Group Metals 6.3.3 Alloys of Iron Group Metals with Molybdenum or Tungsten 6.3.4 Alloys of Iron Group Metals with Palladium and Platinum 6.3.5 Alloys of 4d Transition Metals with Metalloid Element(s) References 7 Composites 7.1 Composite Preparation by Codeposition of Metals 7.1.1 Principles of the Direct Codeposition of Composites and Their Precursor Alloys 7.1.2 Cu(Co) Alloys 7.1.3 Ag(Co) Alloys 7.1.4 Cu(Ag) Alloys 7.1.5 Miscellaneous Composites Obtained with Metal Codeposition 7.2 Composite Deposition from Particle Suspensions 7.2.1 Preliminary Remarks on the Importance of Composite Plating 7.2.2 Theories of Stability of Suspensions and Their Coagulation 7.2.3 Theories of Particle Incorporation During Electroplating 7.2.4 Experimental Observation of the Metal Growth During Particle Codeposition 7.2.5 Key Experimental Parameters in Suspension Plating 7.2.6 Comparison of the Codeposition of Micrometric and Nanometric Particles 7.2.7 Grain Size and Hardness of Granular Coatings 7.2.8 Influence of the Incorporated Particles on the Wear Damage and Friction of the Coatings 7.2.9 Hydrophobic Dispersion Coatings 7.2.10 Suspension Plating with Magnetic Particles 7.2.11 Role of the Incorporation of Inert Particles in the Corrosion and Oxidation Behaviour of Metals 7.2.12 Metal–Metal Composites with Miscellaneous Applications 7.2.13 Combination of Various Particles in Electroplated Dispersion Coatings 7.2.14 Suspension Plating in Anodic Processes References 8 Porous Nanostructured Materials 8.1 The Dynamic Bubble Template Method 8.1.1 Overview of the Dynamic Bubble Template Method 8.1.2 Chemical Aspects of the DHBT-Plated Metals: Deposit Types and Bath Components 8.1.3 Miscellaneous Other Materials and Methods Related to the Dynamic Bubble Template Approach 8.2 Superhydrophobic Porous Surfaces by Electrodeposition 8.2.1 General Aspects of Morphology-Based Hydrophobicity 8.2.2 Electroplated Metallic Coatings with Hydrophobic Properties 8.2.3 Post-deposition Impregnation of Deposits with High Surface Roughness 8.2.4 Hydrophobic Porous Salt Films Prepared with Electrochemical Methods 8.2.5 Electroplated Hydrophobic Polymers with High Surface Roughness 8.3 Porous Structures Electrodeposited from Dilute Solutions 8.3.1 Porous Metallic Deposits from Dilute Solutions 8.3.2 Non-metallic Nanocolumnar Deposits 8.4 Electrochemical Dealloying 8.4.1 Background of Dealloying 8.4.2 Dealloying of Binary Alloys 8.4.3 Dealloying of Ternary Alloys 8.4.4 Dealloying of Non-equilibrium Alloys 8.4.5 Dealloying of Electrochemically Produced Layers 8.5 Combination of Porosity-Related Electrochemical Methods References 9 Electrosynthesis of Nanostructures Without a Coating Formation on Electrodes 9.1 Synthesis of Nanoparticles on Electrodes 9.1.1 Metal Nanoparticle Formation by Direct Electrochemical Reduction of Metal Ions 9.1.2 Mediated Formation of Metal Nanoparticles with Electrochemical Generation of a Reducing Agent 9.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 9.2.1 General Aspects of the Electrosynthesis of Free Oxide Particles 9.2.2 Cathodic Processes for Obtaining Iron Oxide Particles 9.2.3 Iron Oxide Synthesis with Sacrificial Anodes 9.2.4 Co-precipitation of Mixed Magnetic Oxide Particles Containing Iron 9.3 Electrochemically Assisted Synthesis of Miscellaneous Non-metallic Nanoparticles References Part III Nanostructured Materials Obtained by Using Structured Substrates and Other Special Electrode Arrangements 10 Electrochemical Manufacturing Methods Based on Surface Inhomogeneities at the Nanoscale 10.1 Pulse Sequences for the Regulation of Nucleation, Growth and Post-deposition Treatment 10.2 Electrodeposition of Nanocrystals 10.2.1 General Aspects of the Electrochemical Nucleation of Nanoparticles 10.2.2 Substrate–Nanoparticles Pairs and Deposition Conditions for Nanoparticle Preparation 10.3 Electrodeposition on Surfaces with Step Edges 10.3.1 General Considerations Concerning the Deposition Along Step Edges 10.3.2 Deposition on the Step Edges of Graphite 10.4 Electrodeposition on Surfaces with Mechanically Induced Nanoinhomogeneities 10.5 Top-Down Electrochemical Synthesis of Nanosheets 10.5.1 Intercalation and Accompanying Exfoliation Processes 10.5.2 Graphene by Electrochemical Exfoliation from Aqueous Solutions 10.5.3 Graphene by Electrochemical Exfoliation from Solutions with Non-aqueous Solvents 10.5.4 Electrochemistry-Based Transfer Methods of Graphene and Graphene Oxide Nanosheets 10.5.5 Electrochemical Exfoliation of Various Inorganic Materials 10.5.6 Exfoliation of Suspended Particles with Bipolar Electrochemistry 10.6 Molten Salt Electrolysis Methods for the Synthesis of Nanostructures 10.6.1 Carbon Nanostructures Prepared from Graphitic Cathode 10.6.2 Electrolytic Preparation of Filled Nanotubes 10.6.3 Carbon Nanostructures Obtained by CO2 Reduction in Molten Salts References 11 Templated Systems 11.1 Definition and Classification of Template Systems 11.2 Nanochannel Templates Obtained with Top-Down Synthesis Methods 11.2.1 Comparison of the Templates Suitable for Electrodeposition of Nanowires 11.2.2 Deposition into Nanochannel Templates: Electrochemistry 11.2.3 Electrodeposition into Nanocavities of High Aspect Ratio: Models and Calculations 11.2.4 Electrodeposited Homogeneous Metallic Nanowires 11.2.5 Electrodeposited Non-metallic Nanowires 11.2.6 Electrodeposition of Compositionally Modulated Nanowires 11.2.7 Miscellaneous Properties of Nanowires 11.2.8 Metallic Nanotubes Obtained by Electrodeposition into Nanochannel Templates 11.2.9 Templates Prepared from Diblock Copolymers 11.2.10 Templates Obtained from Directionally Solidified Fibrous Eutectic Metallic Systems 11.3 Templates Obtained Through the Self-assembly of Particles 11.3.1 Template Preparation from Uniform Solid Particles 11.3.2 Electrodeposition of Metals into Particulate Templates 11.3.3 Electrodeposition of Non-metallic Materials into Particulate Templates 11.3.4 The Double-Templating Method Based on Nanosphere Lithography 11.4 Soft Templates Formed by Molecular Self-assembly Processes 11.4.1 Lyotropic Systems Suitable for Templates in Electrodeposition Processes 11.4.2 Nanoporous Metals and Oxides Obtained from the H1 Phase of Lyotropic Liquid Crystals 11.4.3 Semiconductors Obtained with Hexagonal Lyotropic Phases 11.4.4 Electrodeposited Polymers by Using Various Lyotropic Templates 11.4.5 Dual Template Methods Involving Lyotropic Liquid Crystals 11.4.6 Micelle Templates 11.4.7 Self-assembled Monolayers (SAMs) as Templates References 12 Localized or Spatially Selective Electrodeposition Methods 12.1 Electrodeposition in Ultrathin Solution Layers Along the Edge of the Cell 12.1.1 Transport and Fluid Motion in Thin-Layer Cells of Various Orientations 12.1.2 Deposition of Metal-Based Structures Under Cryogenic Conditions 12.1.3 Miscellaneous Deposits Obtained in Cryostatic Thin-Layer Cells 12.2 Two-Plate Thin-Layer Cells for Electron Microscopic Studies of Electrodeposition Processes 12.2.1 Electrochemical Cells in High-Vacuum Environment 12.2.2 In Situ Electrochemical Nucleation Studies with TEM 12.2.3 In Situ Electroplating Studies with TEM 12.2.4 In Situ TEM Studies of Nanostructures Related to Batteries 12.2.5 Chemical Changes in Thin-Layer Cells Induced by the Electron Beam 12.3 Deposition at the Liquid–Liquid Interface 12.3.1 Basic Overview of the Appropriate Systems 12.3.2 Particle Deposition at the Liquid–Liquid Interface 12.3.3 Electrodeposition of Various Films at the ITIES 12.3.4 Electrodeposition Near the Solid–Liquid–Liquid Three-Phase Boundary 12.3.5 Tip- and Filament-Assisted Deposition at the Liquid–Liquid Interface 12.4 Deposition with the Help of Tips 12.4.1 Deposition of Microcolumns by Using Microtips 12.4.2 STM and AFM Tips in Electrochemical Nanomanufacturing 12.4.3 Nanopipette-Based Methods 12.4.4 Miscellaneous Electrochemical Preparation Methods of Nanoelectrodes References Part IV High-Voltage Methods of Nanostructure Preparation 13 Preparation of Nanoporous Oxides from Metals by Electrochemical Anodization 13.1 Electrochemistry and High-Voltage Processes 13.2 Historical Background: From the Aluminium Industry to the Nanotechnology Laboratories 13.3 Traditional Laboratory Technique of PAA Preparation 13.3.1 Aluminium Samples to Be Anodized 13.3.2 Anodizing Cells: Cell Arrangement, Electrodes, Thermal Management 13.3.3 Common Electrolyte Solutions 13.3.4 Voltage and Current Density Ranges Corresponding to the Stages of the Anodization Process 13.3.5 Porosity and Degree of Ordering 13.3.6 Composition and Structure of PAA 13.3.7 Removal of the Remaining Metal and the Barrier Layer 13.3.8 Theoretical Approaches, Modelling of PAA Formation 13.4 Patterning Methods in the PAA Preparation Process 13.4.1 Patterning Methods for Achieving Regular Pore Formation on Aluminium 13.4.2 Anodized Porous Aluminium as a Pattern Transfer Tool 13.5 Pore Shaping with Modulated Anodization Conditions 13.5.1 Pore Branching 13.5.2 Monotonous Pore Diameter Variation 13.5.3 Periodic Pore Diameter Modulation 13.6 Pursuits Related to the Extension of the Anodizing Conditions 13.6.1 Anodization of Commercial Aluminium Samples 13.6.2 Hard Anodization 13.6.3 Disparity Between the First and Second Anodization Steps 13.6.4 Increase in Anodization Temperature 13.6.5 New Components of the Anodization Baths 13.7 Anodization of Valve Metals 13.7.1 Titanium 13.7.2 Other Valve Metals 13.8 Nanostructures Prepared with Anodization of Miscellaneous Other Metals 13.8.1 Iron 13.8.2 Tin 13.9 Anodization of Alloys 13.9.1 Binary Alloys with Components that Form Regular Anodized Nanostructures 13.9.2 Miscellaneous Other Alloys References 14 Nanostructures Obtained with Plasma Discharge Processes 14.1 Carbon Nanostructures: Nanotubes and Nanoonions 14.2 General Features of the Discharge Devices and Processes 14.3 Arc Discharge Processes with Difference Gases 14.4 Plasma Discharge Setups Submerged into Various Liquids 14.5 Experimental Conditions Affecting the Type Distribution of Carbon Nanotubes 14.6 Arc Discharge Synthesis of Carbon-Encapsulated Nanostructures 14.7 Non-carbonaceous Nanostructures Obtained by Plasma Synthesis References Index