Routledge Handbook of Illiberalism

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Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Illustrations Contributors Preface Part I Theoretical Perspectives 1 The Antiliberal Idea Introduction Anti-individualism The Social Nature of Humans Between Individual Culpability and Tribal Loyalty Vilifying Universalism The Attack On Meritocracy and Secular Reason Conclusion References 2 The History of Illiberalism Introduction The Meaning of Illiberal From Ancient Rome to the Enlightenment The French Revolution, the Birth of Liberalism and Anti-Liberal Socialism and the Invention of Liberal Democracy Totalitarianism and the Discovery of an Illiberal Tradition The Birth of Illiberal Democracy Anti-liberalism and Illiberalism in American Academia Today Conclusion Notes References 3 Illiberalism and Opposition to the Enlightenment Introduction Liberalisms and Antiliberalisms Enlightenments and Counter-Enlightenments Conclusion Notes References 4 Contemporary Christian Criticism of Liberalism Introduction Early Tensions Between Christianity and Liberalism: From the Nineteenth to Mid-Twentieth Century Christianity and Liberalism Under the Long Pontificate of John Paul II (1978–2005) Shifts in the Landscape: The Turn Toward a Defensive Christianity The Questioning of Liberalism The Birth of Postliberalism The Critical Voices of a New Generation: New Integralism On the Horizon Conclusion Note References 5 Left and New Left Critiques of Liberalism Introduction Early Critiques: Liberalism as Social Disorganization Marx: Liberalism as Failed Emancipation Nineteenth Century Perspectives: Liberalism as Society Misunderstood Liberalism as Progress Liberalism as Subtle Coercion Liberalism as Restrictive Consensus Politics Liberalism as Individualism’s Threat to Democracy Contemporary Challenges: Liberalism as “Privilege” Conclusion Notes References 6 Conservativism as Illiberalism Introduction The Received View: Liberalism v. Burkean Conservatism as Particularist Scepticism About Reason in Politics, and the Contrast With Liberalism Qualifying the Received View (1): Rational Conservatism and Pragmatic Liberalism Qualifying the Received View (2): MacIntyre On Tradition Qualifying the Received View (3): Burkean Conservatism and the Enlightenment Conclusion Acknowledgements Notes References 7 Asian Values, Confucianism, and Illiberal Constitutions Introduction Asian Values Discourse and Debate Asian Values and Asian Constitutions Separation of Powers/Checks and Balances Rights/Duties State Neutrality Democracy/Popular Sovereignty Confucianism as the Intellectual Foundation for Asian Illiberal Constitutions? Rule of Law/Constitutional Supremacy Separation of Powers/Checks and Balances Rights/Duties State Neutrality Democracy/Popular Sovereignty Conclusion References 8 A Theory of Illiberal Democracy Introduction Rousseau’s Legacy Jacobinism Or Totalitarian Democracy Caesarism Or Authoritarian Democracy The Model of Napoléon: Constant, Bonaparte From Democracy to Leader-Democracy: Tocqueville, Weber From Leader-Democracy to Dictatorship: Schmitt Anti-pluralism and Anti-Institutionalism, Or: Theory of an Illiberal Democratic Constitution Conclusion Acknowledgments References Part II Forms of Illiberal Government 9 Illiberal Regime Types Introduction How to Study Political Regimes Dictatorship Despotism and Tyranny Despotism Tyranny Strauss-Kojève Debate Autocracy Totalitarianism Authoritarianism Conclusion References 10 Hybrid Regimes Introduction Transitional Phase Or Hybrid Regime? Definitions Models and Typologies Instability: Problems and Directions of Change Concluding Remarks References 11 Theocracy Introduction Historical Background Constitutional Theocracy Theocratic Elements in Illiberal Constitutionalism Conclusion Notes References 12 Authoritarian Structures and Trends in Consolidated Democracies Introduction Illiberal/Authoritarian Democracy Power and Authority Authoritarian Democracy and Dimensions of Distribution Established/consolidated Democracies Authoritarian Structures in Liberal Democracies The Prerogative and Discretion Emergency Powers Executive Privileges Authoritarian Trends in Consolidated Democracies Post-truth and the Erosion of Democratic Norms Appropriating Political Power as Private Property Cult of Immediacy Institutional De-Consolidation Conclusions Notes References Part III Ideas and Forces Fuelling Illiberalism 13 The Ideational Core of Democratic Illiberalism Introduction Liberalism’s Own Faults? The Multiple Sources of Illiberalism Democratic Decline: Explaining the Erosion of Liberal Values and Institutions Illiberal Democracy: An Analytically Useful Concept Or a Pernicious Oxymoron? Illiberalism – A New Ideology for a Democratic Age? A Distinct Ideology of “Democratic Illiberalism”? The Ideational Content of “Democratic Illiberalism” Conclusion Acknowledgements References 14 The People in Ancient Times and the Rise of “Popularism” Introduction Theories The Greek Debate Roman Reflections Institutional Practices Greek Practices Roman Practices Between Demagogy and Populism: Popularism Greek Demagogues Roman “Popularism” References 15 The Illiberal Potential of the People Introduction The People and Its Potential: Some Distinctions Imagined Communities and the Potential of Foundational Mystifications (Il)liberal Fantasies and the Potential of Invisible Forms Fictive Communities and the (Il)liberal Character of Popular Government Majoritarian (Mis)conceptions and the (Il)liberal Character of Majority Rule Democratic Disposition and the Effects of Adjectival (Dis)qualifications Liberal Democracy and the (Il)liberal Potential of Protean Conceptions Conclusion Notes References 16 Identity, Narratives, and Nationalism Introduction: A Rush to Identity Parsing Identity as an Analytic Concept Are Identity and Illiberalism Constitutive of Each Other? Benign Nationalism Less Benign Nationalism Toxic Nationalism: Identitarianism and Nativism Conclusion: Identity and Illiberalism Notes References 17 Illiberalism and National Sovereignty Introduction Definitional Matters Illiberal and Liberal National(ist) Sovereignty Illiberal National Sovereignty Liberal National Sovereignty Contemporary Trends Conclusion Notes References 18 Populism and Illiberalism Introduction Populism and Constitutional Democracy: A Brief Overview Illiberal Democracy: Exploration and Critique The Populist Critique of Liberal Legalism Right- and Left-Wing Forms of Populism in Europe Conservative, Right-Wing Populism as an Illiberal Force Left-wing Populism as an Illiberal Force Conclusion Notes 19 Illiberalism and the Multicultural Backlash Introduction Multiculturalism: The Evolution of a Concept and a Debate in the US Multiculturalism in Europe: Between Migrants and National(ist) Revival Europe Confronts Multiculturalism: Backlash Multicultural Backlash and Iilliberalism Conclusion Notes References 20 Illiberal Democracy and the Politicization of Immigration Introduction Democracy, Liberalism, and Immigration: Key Tensions Migration Politics Before the Illiberal Turn: The Silent Break-Through of Liberal Norms The Transformation of Socio-Political Conflicts: Immigration and New Political Cleavages Illiberal Liberalism Public Opinion and Trust in Political Establishments Conclusion References 21 Gender and Illiberalism Introduction The Relationship of Gender and Illiberalism Lessons From Existing Scholarship Gender as the “Symbolic Glue” of Illiberal States The Gendered Illiberal Polypore State Acknowledgements References 22 Illiberalism and Islam Introduction Definitions: Illiberalism, Liberalism, and Islam Liberal and Preliberal Beginnings Illiberalism Sallies Forth Conclusion References Part IV Illiberal Practices 23 Illiberal Practices Introduction A Practice Approach to Illiberalism Illiberal Practices and Authoritarian Practices A Closer Look at Select Illiberal Practices Mass Digital Surveillance: From Scandal to Acceptance NGO Restrictions: Horizontal Learning Between States Conclusion Notes References 24 Surveillance in the Illiberal State Introduction Defining Surveillance New Understandings of Surveillance Illiberal Incentives Empirical Analysis Surveillance Strategies Employed By Illiberal States Looking to the Future: China’s Social Credit System and COVID-19 Implications Conclusion Notes References 25 Media Control and Post-Truth Communication Introduction Media Freedom and Media Control in Theory and Practice Digital Media and the Vulnerabilities of Journalism Mechanisms of Media Control and Media Capture Ownership Capture Financial Capture Regulatory Pressures Attacks and Harassment Conclusion Note References 26 The Management of Protest and Dissent Introduction “Pragmatic Resistance” and “Civic Anger:” The Value, Forms, and Effects of Protest and Dissent Illiberal “Practices” Rather Than Illiberal “Regimes” “The Revolution Will Not Be Televised:” Media Framing and Protest Events Protest Policing and Illiberal Forms of Repression State-mobilized Movements Protest Management and the Instrumentalization of Law Conclusion: Illiberal Practices and the Forfeiture of Protest Subsidies References 27 The Body of the Nation: Illiberalism and Gender Introduction Anti-genderism and Global Right/Right-Wing Populism Anti-genderism and Illiberalism Racialization, De-Politicization, and Culturalization of Citizenship Controversies Over Muslim Religious Attire Women’s Bodies as Battlefields: The Illiberal War Over Reproductive Rights Concluding Remarks Notes References Part V Government and Governance 28 The Myth of the Illiberal Democratic Constitution Introduction Populism and Illiberalism in Constitutions The Paucity of Illiberal Constitutional Design Illiberal Democracy and the Tendency Towards Authoritarianism Conclusion Notes References 29 Constitutional Practices in Times “After Liberty” Introduction Constitutionalism Under Stress From Constitutions Without Constitutionalism to the Pluralization of Constitutionalism The Illiberal Critique of Constitutionalism: Darker Legacies and Family Resemblances Illiberal Blueprint? Playbook? Practice Illiberal Constitutional Practices (De)activating the People: Elections and Plebiscites Disabling the Legislature From Executive Aggrandizement to Executive Arrogation Judicial Reforms: The Low Hanging Fruit Public Administration The Fate of Individual Liberty Conclusion Notes References 30 Parliaments in an Era of Illiberal Executives Introduction The Rise and Demise of Parliament The Age of Leadership An Empty Apparatus Demise of Equal Chance Pluralism’s Disunity Executives Rule Nationalist Mythologizing Parliamentary Decline in Three Democracies Demise of Parliament Demobilizing the Opposition Executives Rule Conclusion: Reviving the Age of Discussion? Acknowledgements Notes References 31 Political Parties, Elections, and Pernicious Polarization in the Rise of Illiberalism Introduction Illiberalism as a Product of Polarization – and of Pernicious Polarization Political Parties as Promoters Or Inhibitors of Illiberalism-Cum-Polarization How Election Processes and Systems Shape and Are Shaped By Polarization and Illiberalism Illiberalism’s Privileging of Vertical Accountability Majoritarian Electoral Systems Enable Political Polarization And, in Turn, Illiberalism Electoral Engineering By Illiberal Polarizers The Illiberal Democracy of Hungary Electoral and Party Institutions in the US: Resilience and Vulnerability Political Parties: Sources of Polarization – Sources of Democratic Resilience Notes References 32 The Plebiscite in Modern Democracy Introduction The Traditional Debate Failing Institutions and New Technologies Plebiscitary Administration Conclusion References 33 Illiberal Constitutionalism and the Judiciary Introduction Little New Under the Sun: The Riddles of Judicial Independence The Illiberals and the Design of the Judiciary The Illiberals’ Strategies Submission and Discipline: A Keystone of the Illiberals’ Approach to the Judiciary The Output: the Illiberal Case-Law Conclusion Notes References 34 Illiberalism and the Rule of Law Introduction The Rule of Law as Tempering Power Liberalism and the Rule of Law Eliminationist Illiberalism Illiberalism Unbound Illiberal Legalities and the Rule of Law Conclusion Note References 35 Emergencies and Illiberalism Introduction Liberalism and Illiberalism Constitutional Emergency Powers: From Dictatorship to Permanent Emergencies Liberal Constitutionalism and States of Emergency Emergencies and Liberty Emergencies and the Separation of Powers Emergency Powers and the Implications for Liberalism Illiberal Democracies and Emergencies Illiberalism Beyond National Security Emergencies Economic States of Emergency and Illiberalism Confronting Economic Emergencies and Illiberalism Conclusion References 36 Illiberalism of Military Regimes Introduction Characteristics of Military Regimes Illiberalism of Military Regimes Potential Caveats Empirical Analysis Conclusion Notes References 37 Towards a Post-Liberal Approach to Political Ordering Introduction Post-liberal Thought in Political Theory, and Peace and Conflict Studies Between Constitutions, Legislation, and Practices Engaging With Lifeworlds and Multiple Ontologies Outlook Notes References Part VI Economy, Society, and Psychology 38 The Social Requisites of Illiberalism Introduction Democratization and Democratic Backsliding Illiberalism in East-Central Europe (Inter-)disciplinary Challenges Conclusion Notes References 39 The Psychological Construction of the Illiberal Subject Introduction Illiberalism as Symptom of Liberalism’s Estrangement From Democracy Psychology’s Political Diagnosis of the Popular Mind Post-World War II: Consolidation of Liberalism’s Fear of Populism The Liberal Turn Towards Illiberalism Conclusion References 40 The Psychology of Authoritarianism and Support for Illiberal Policies and Parties Introduction The Conceptualization of Authoritarianism as a Psychological Predisposition Social Conformity/Autonomy and Illiberalism Authoritarianism and Threat The Measurement of Authoritarian Predispositions Authoritarianism and Illiberal Outcomes Prejudice and Hostility Toward Outgroup Members Restricting Civil Liberties and Protecting Law and Order Support for Illiberal Parties Support for Brexit and Trump Avenues for Future Research Ideological Context Threat – Revisited Conclusion References 41 Illiberal Politics and Group-Based Needs for Recognition and Dominance Key Terms and Concepts: Group-Based Needs for Recognition and Dominance Group-based Need for Recognition and Illiberal Politics: Collective Narcissism at Work Compensation Through Group Image The Need for Recognition Expressed as Political Intolerance The Need for Recognition and the Susceptibility To, and Spread Of, Misinformation The Need for Recognition Translated to Support for Public Policies The Need for Recognition and Vote Choice The Group-Based Need for Dominance and Illiberal Politics: Social Dominance Orientation at Work From Recognition to Superiority: The Need for Dominance The Need for Dominance Expressed as Political Intolerance The Need for Dominance and the Susceptibility To, and Spread Of, Misinformation The Need for Dominance Translated to Support for Public Policies The Need for Dominance and Vote Choice The Interplay Between Needs for Recognition and Dominance Conclusion Acknowledgements References 42 Illiberal Economic Policies Introduction The Emergence of Enlightened Illiberalism History, Theory, Experience Empirical Models of State-Led Development in Emerging Economies The Developmental State Russia, the Mother of All Illiberalism China, the Everlasting Exception Hungary: A Model of What for Central Europe? Speculations On the Future of Economic Illiberalism Conclusion References 43 Economic Consequences of Illiberalism in Eastern Europe Introduction Illiberalism and Economic Development in Eastern Europe Illiberal Political Ambitions Dilemmas of De-Democratization and Economic Policy Defining Statism and Economic Nationalism Varieties of Illiberal Statism and Economic Nationalism Hungary: Asserting State Control Over the Economy – Sector By Sector Poland: State-Controlled Repolonization The Czech Republic: A Personalized Model of State Control Internationally-engaged “Economic Nationalism” Sustainability of Illiberal Statism Conclusion Notes References Part VII Regional and National Variations 44 Asia’s Illiberal Governments Introduction The Ideological Alternatives to Liberalism Empirical Evidence of Recent Trends Subregional Variations: A Closer Look The Northeast Asian Democracies: Stable, Liberal, and Resilient China and Its “Model” The Hybrid and Toggling States of Southeast Asia The Rising Populism of South Asia Conclusion References 45 Cultural Sources and Institutional Practice of Authoritarianism in China Introduction The Party-State’s Stance On Rights and Rule of Law Illiberal Confucianism? The Effects of the Confucian Conception of Individual Rights and Obligations Illiberalism in the Management of Social Groups and Entrepreneurs, and Social Policy Political Liberalism and Illiberalism: The Party’s Roles, Political Participation, and the Media Schemes to Promote Political Participation The Role of Media, Internet, and Social Media The Hardening of Authoritarianism Since 2013 Illiberalism in the Economy Comparison With Other Types of Authoritarianism Conclusion References 46 The Intertwining of Liberalism and Illiberalism in India Introduction Overview Political Dynamics Intellectual Underpinnings The Founding Period: The Making of the Constitution (1947–50) The Making of Group Rights Universal Adult Franchise and Citizenship Rights Emergency Powers and Preventive Detention The Evolution of the Post-Independence Constitutional Order (1947–2014) The Rise of Illiberalism Since 2014: The Four Crises Since May 2019 Conclusion Acknowledgements Note References 47 Indonesia’s “Third-Wave” Democratic Model? Introduction: The Problem and Our Approach Indonesia’s Democratization Revisited The Rise of Illiberalism in Third-Wave Democracies Illiberal Politics and Islamic Populism Conclusion Note References 48 Latin America Breathing: Liberalism and Illiberalism, Once and Again Introduction Two Ideals, Four Models Independence and Restoration (1810–1850) Constitutionalism, Order, and Progress (1850–1910) Democracy, Elections, and Military Coups (1910–1980) Democratic Stability and Democratic Debasement (1980–Present) Final Reflections Notes References 49 From Antiestablishmentarianism to Bolsonarism in Brazil Introduction Historical Background of Recent Antiestablishmentarianism in Brazil The Social Ethics of Brazilian Illiberalism: The Model Citizen Between Pacts and Threats: The Puzzling Relationship Between the Presidency and the Legislature The Judiciary in the Balance Examples of Judicial Resistance The Broader Context Judicial Activism and Its Ambiguous Relationship With Bolsonarism Media and Communication Conclusion Acknowledgments Notes References 50 The Balkans Introduction International Assessments of Liberal Democracy in the Balkans Liberal Democracy in the Past Liberal Democracy in the Present Lack of Rule of Law European Union’s Uneven Impact The Impact of Nationalism and Populism Forces Propelling Illiberalism The Recent Political Context Elections Serbia Montenegro North Macedonia The Judiciary Serbia Montenegro North Macedonia Press and Media Serbia Montenegro North Macedonia Conclusion References 51 Illiberalism in East-Central Europe Introduction What Is and What Isn’t Illiberalism? Illiberal Theories Illiberal Societies Social Relations The Role of Religion Culture Wars Conclusion Notes References 52 The Illiberal Challenge in the European Union Introduction The Illiberal Offensive in Europe: Competing Forces The Turning Point: 2015–2016 Support for Democracy Predominates Illiberalism in European Societies: The Broader Context Illiberal Crisis in Eastern Europe Or European Crisis of Liberal Democracy? The Majority Still Supports the European Union The Rise of Illiberalism Checked By the Popularity of the Euro The Future of Illiberalism Will Be Determined in Part By the European Public Space The EU Facing Illiberalism The EU’s Vulnerabilities The EU’s Attempts to Control the Rise of Illiberalism Taking Back Control On What Fuels Popular Illiberalism: Europe as a Dual Sovereignty Conclusion Acknowledgements Notes References 53 Turkey as a Model of Muslim Authoritarianism? Introduction When and How Did Turkey Become a Competitive Authoritarian Regime? Getting Turkey Wrong: The Rise and Fall of the Literature in Praise of AKP Democracy How Did Turkey Turn Into an Autocracy? The Literature’s Conundrum The Slow Death of Turkish Democracy EU-led Neoliberal Reforms and the Rise of AKP-Style Crony Capitalism and Welfare Dependence GONGO-ification of Islamist Civil Society The Colonization of the Broader Civil Space Through Media Ownership and Think-Tanks The Illiberal Sources of AKP’s Bid for Global Muslim Counter-Hegemony Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects Notes References Part VIII Global Perspectives 54 Illiberalism and Human Rights Introduction What Is Illiberalism? What Are Human Rights? Human Rights and Liberalism: A Contingent Or Essential Bond? How Much Illiberalism Can Human Rights Stomach? The Case of (Religious) Moral Perfectionism Conclusion Notes References 55 Free Trade in Peril Introduction Populism and Economic Anguish: Debates On Animating Forces Cultural Backlash, Immigration, and Economic Anxiety Free Trade, Populism, and Economic Backlash The Vices and Virtues of Free Trade Domestic Institutions and Free Trade International Institutions Conclusion and Implications Notes References 56 International Sources of Democratic Backsliding Introduction The Current State of Democracy: Democracy Promotion and Democratic Backsliding On the Rise International Factors and Regime Outcomes The International Side of Backsliding: The Role of IOs Democracy Promotion Executive Power Domestic Policy Space The Impact of Globalization Revisited Conclusion and Areas for Future Research Notes References 57 The Crisis of Liberal World Order Introduction Security: The Return of Great-Power Rivalry Global Governance: Competitive Institution-Building Economics: Weaponized Interdependence and Decoupling Ideas: Liberal Democracy in Retreat Conclusion References Part IX Sources of Resistance 58 The Weaknesses of Illiberal Regimes Introduction What Is an Illiberal Regime? Reaching Power Capturing the State Taming Society The Establishment of an Authoritarian Regime Conclusion Acknowledgements Note References 59 Civil Society, Crisis Exposure, and Resistance Strategies Introduction Civil Society, Liberal Democracy, and the State Crisis Exposure and Legal Restrictions Affecting Civil Society Space in Europe Responses to the Shrinking of Legal Space – Strengthening Resistance and Resilience Resistance Strategies Legal Redress Resistance Through Collaboration Resilience Strategies Financial Support Monitoring and Awareness-Raising By Supranational and International Initiatives Conclusion Acknowledgements Notes References 60 Politics After the Normalization of Shamelessness Introduction: Language Matters How Representation and the Liberal State Became Democratic Illiberal Democracy as an Oxymoron No Immunity: Liberal Democracies and the Normalization of Shameless Behaviour The Liberal Heritage, Post-Liberalism and Resisting Shamelessness Concluding Observations Acknowledgements Note References Part X Themes for Future Research 61 A Compass for Illiberalism Research Introduction Conceptual Problems Liberalism Revisited Illiberalism and Antiliberalism Returning to History: Ideas and Practices The Sources of Illiberalism Revisited The Place of Public Reason Illiberalism in Practice – Illiberal Practices Pathways to Illiberal Normalization Sources and Forces of Illiberalism Culture and Society Political and Social Psychology Social and Economic Policy Constitutions, Government, and Governance International Relations Academia Notes References Index