Chemistry and Technology of Alternate Fuels

Description

This compendium covers unconventional fuel sources, i.e., sources other than crude oil and natural gas with the aim of presenting these sources as future alternates to fossil fuels. The contents of this must-have volume are important aspects of the non-fossil fuel sources of availability of alternate sources of fuels. The properties of these fuels are well documented and compared to other fuels from non-petroleum sources (such as tar sand, coal, and oil shale). The environmental effects of non-petroleum fuels will also be compared to other fuels in terms of current environmental regulations. Contents Preface About the Author Part 1 The Need for Alternate Fuels Chapter 1 Current Fuel Sources and Alternate Fuel Sources 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Fossil Fuel Sources 1.2.1 Natural gas 1.2.2 Gas hydrates 1.2.3 The crude oil family 1.2.3.1 Opportunity crude oil 1.2.3.2 High acid crude oil 1.2.3.3 Foamy oil 1.2.3.4 Heavy crude oil 1.2.4 Unconventional fossil fuel resources 1.2.4.1 Extra heavy crude oil and tar sand bitumen 1.2.4.2 Coal 1.2.4.3 Oil shale 1.3 Non-Fossil Fuel Energy Sources 1.3.1 Biomass 1.3.2 Geothermal energy 1.3.3 Hydrogen energy 1.3.4 Nuclear energy 1.3.5 Solar energy 1.3.6 Tidal energy 1.3.7 Wind energy 1.4 Energy Supply 1.4.1 The peak oil theory 1.4.1.1 Reserve depletion 1.4.1.2 Effects and consequences 1.4.2 Economic factors 1.4.3 Geopolitical factors 1.4.4 Physical factors 1.4.5 Technological factors 1.5 Energy Independence and Energy Security 1.5.1 Energy independence 1.5.2 Energy security References Chapter 2 Conventional Fuels 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Gaseous Fuels 2.2.1 Composition 2.2.2 Manufacture 2.2.3 Properties and uses 2.3 Liquid Fuels 2.3.1 Naphtha 2.3.1.1 Manufacture 2.3.1.2 Composition 2.3.1.3 Properties and uses 2.3.2 Gasoline 2.3.2.1 Manufacture 2.3.2.2 Composition 2.3.2.3 Properties and uses 2.3.3 Kerosene 2.3.3.1 Manufacture 2.3.3.2 Composition 2.3.3.3 Properties and uses 2.3.4 Fuel oil 2.3.4.1 Manufacture 2.3.4.2 Composition 2.3.4.3 Properties and uses 2.4 Solid Fuels 2.4.1 Wax 2.4.1.1 Manufacture 2.4.1.2 Composition 2.4.1.3 Properties and uses 2.4.2 Resid 2.4.2.1 Manufacture 2.4.2.2 Composition 2.4.2.3 Properties and uses 2.4.3 Coke 2.4.3.1 Composition 2.4.3.2 Properties and uses 2.5 Conclusions References Chapter 3 Alternate Fuels 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Composition and Properties 3.3 Classification of Biofuels 3.3.1 First-generation biofuels 3.3.1.1 Sugars and starch 3.3.1.2 Cellulose 3.3.1.3 Lignin 3.3.2 Second-generation biofuels 3.3.3 Third-generation biofuels 3.4 Types of Biofuels 3.4.1 Gaseous fuels 3.4.1.1 Biogas 3.4.1.2 Low-Btu gas 3.4.1.3 Medium-Btu gas 3.4.1.4 High heat-content gas 3.4.1.5 Landfill gas 3.4.1.6 Synthesis gas 3.4.1.7 Hydrogen 3.4.2 Liquid fuels 3.4.2.1 Alcohols 3.4.2.1.1 Methanol 3.4.2.1.2 Ethanol 3.4.2.1.3 Propanol and butanol 3.4.2.2 Biodiesel 3.4.2.2.1 Feedstocks 3.4.2.2.2 Processes 3.4.2.2.2.1 Transesterification 3.4.2.2.2.2 Catalytic transesterification 3.4.2.2.2.3 Supercritical methanol transesterification 3.4.2.2.2.4 Effect of reaction parameters on yield 3.4.2.3 Hydrocarbons 3.4.2.4 Bio-oil 3.4.2.5 Bioethers 3.4.2.6 Liquid fuels from synthesis gas 3.4.3 Solid fuels 3.5 Property Variation with Source 3.5.1 General observations 3.5.2 Fuel specifications and performance References Part 2 Feedstocks Chapter 4 Feedstocks for Fossil Fuels 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Natural Gas 4.2.1 History 4.2.2 Formation and occurrence 4.2.2.1 Associated gas 4.2.2.2 Non-associated gas 4.2.3 Unconventional gas 4.2.3.1 Coalbed methane 4.2.3.2 Gas hydrates 4.2.3.3 Shale gas 4.2.4 Composition and properties 4.2.4.1 Composition 4.2.4.2 Properties 4.2.4.2.1 Density 4.2.4.2.2 Heat of combustion 4.2.4.2.3 Volatility and flammability 4.3 The Crude Oil Family 4.3.1 Conventional crude oil 4.3.2 Opportunity crude oil 4.3.3 High acid crude oil 4.3.4 Foamy oil 4.3.5 Tight oil 4.3.6 Heavy crude oil 4.4 Extra Heavy Crude Oil and Tar Sand Bitumen 4.4.1 Extra heavy crude oil 4.4.2 Tar sand Bitumen 4.5 Coal 4.6 Oil Shale References Chapter 5 Feedstocks for Alternate Fuels 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Crops 5.2.1 Energy crops 5.2.1.1 Cordgrass and switchgrass 5.2.1.2 Jerusalem artichoke 5.2.1.3 Miscanthus 5.2.1.4 Reed plants 5.2.1.5 Residual herbaceous biomass 5.2.1.6 Short-rotation coppice 5.2.1.7 Sorghum 5.3 Wood 5.3.1 History 5.3.2 Composition and properties 5.3.2.1 Chemical composition 5.3.2.1.1 Cellulose 5.3.2.1.2 Hemicellulose 5.3.2.1.3 Lignin 5.3.2.1.4 Solvent extractives 5.3.3 Types of wood 5.3.3.1 Hardwood 5.3.3.2 Softwood 5.3.4 Uses 5.4 Waste 5.4.1 Domestic and industrial waste 5.4.2 Effects of waste References Chapter 6 Production of Alternate Fuels 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Production of Alternate Fuels 6.2.1 Anaerobic digestion 6.2.2 Biophotolysis 6.2.3 Combustion 6.2.3.1 Types of combustors 6.2.3.2 Combustion plants 6.2.4 Fermentation 6.2.5 Gasification 6.2.6 Pyrolysis 6.2.7 Other processes 6.2.7.1 Acid hydrolysis 6.2.7.2 Briquetting 6.2.7.3 Enzymatic hydrolysis 6.2.7.4 Transesterification References Chapter 7 Landfill Gas 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Landfill Classification 7.2.1 Bioreactor landfill sites 7.2.2 Construction and demolition debris landfill sites 7.2.3 Conventional municipal solid waste landfill sites 7.2.4 Hazardous waste landfill sites 7.2.5 Manual landfill sites 7.2.6 Sanitary landfill sites 7.2.7 Surface impoundment sites 7.3 Landfill Gas 7.4 Formation of Landfill Gas 7.4.1 Organic reactions 7.4.1.1 Hydrolysis and aerobic degradation 7.4.1.2 Hydrolysis and fermentation 7.4.1.3 Acetogenesis 7.4.1.4 Methanogenesis 7.4.1.5 Oxidation 7.4.2 Inorganic reactions 7.4.3 Landfill leachate 7.4.4 Landfill gas monitoring 7.4.5 Landfill mining 7.5 Gas Migration 7.5.1 Diffusion 7.5.2 Pressure 7.5.3 Permeability 7.5.4 Factors affecting gas migration 7.5.4.1 Landfill cover 7.5.4.2 Natural and anthropogenic pathways 7.5.4.3 Wind speed and direction 7.5.4.4 Moisture 7.5.4.5 Groundwater levels 7.5.4.6 Temperature 7.5.4.7 Barometric and soil gas pressure 7.6 Uses 7.6.1 Gas collection 7.6.2 Gas pretreatment 7.6.3 Environmental impact 7.6.3.1 Ash, slag, heavy metals, and dust 7.6.3.2 Flue gas 7.6.4 Gasification of landfill waste References Chapter 8 Synthesis Gas 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Coal Gasification 8.2.1 Chemistry 8.2.2 Processes 8.2.3 Gasifiers 8.3 Gasification of Crude Oil Fractions 8.3.1 Feedstocks 8.3.2 Chemistry 8.3.3 Commercial processes 8.3.3.1 Heavy residue gasification and combined cycle power generation 8.3.3.2 Hybrid gasification process 8.3.3.3 Hydrocarbon gasification 8.3.3.4 Hypro process 8.3.3.5 Pyrolysis processes 8.3.3.6 Shell gasification (partial oxidation) process 8.3.3.7 Steam–methane reforming 8.3.3.8 Steam–naphtha reforming 8.3.3.9 Synthesis gas generation 8.3.3.10 Texaco gasification process 8.4 Gasification of Other Feedstocks 8.5 Fuels and Petrochemicals 8.5.1 Gaseous fuels and chemicals 8.5.1.1 Ammonia 8.5.1.2 Hydrogen 8.5.1.3 Synthetic natural gas 8.5.2 Liquid fuels and chemicals 8.5.2.1 Fischer–Tropsch liquids 8.5.2.2 Methanol 8.5.2.3 Dimethyl ether 8.5.2.4 Methanol-to-gasoline and olefins 8.5.2.5 Other processes 8.6 The Future References Chapter 9 Gas Cleaning 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Gas Streams 9.3 Gas Cleaning 9.3.1 Effect of gas composition 9.3.2 Process types 9.4 Water Removal 9.4.1 Absorption 9.4.2 Adsorption 9.4.3 Cryogenics 9.4.4 Methanol-based processes 9.5 Acid Gas Removal 9.5.1 Adsorption 9.5.2 Absorption 9.5.3 Chemisorption 9.5.4 Other processes 9.6 Removal of Condensable Hydrocarbons 9.6.1 Extraction 9.6.2 Absorption 9.6.3 Fractionation 9.6.4 Enrichment 9.7 Tar Removal 9.7.1 Physical methods 9.7.2 Thermal methods 9.8 Other Methods of Gas Cleaning 9.8.1 Nitrogen removal 9.8.2 Ammonia removal 9.8.3 Particulate matter removal 9.8.4 Siloxane removal 9.8.5 Alkali metal salt removal 9.8.6 Biological methods 9.8.6.1 Biofiltration 9.8.6.2 Bio-scrubbing 9.8.6.3 Biooxidation 9.9 Tail Gas Cleaning 9.9.1 Claus process 9.9.2 SCOT process References Chapter 10 The Fischer–Tropsch Process 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Production of Synthesis Gas 10.2.1 Feedstocks 10.3 The Fischer–Tropsch Process 10.3.1 Chemistry 10.3.2 Process principles 10.3.3 Product distribution 10.4 Reactors and Catalysts 10.4.1 Reactors 10.4.2 Catalysts 10.5 Products and Product Quality 10.5.1 Products 10.5.2 Product quality 10.5.3 Refining Fischer–Tropsch products References Part 3 Properties of Alternate Fuels and the Future Chapter 11 Properties of Alternate Fuels 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Gaseous Fuels 11.2.1 Natural gas 11.2.1.1 Composition 11.2.1.2 Properties 11.2.1.2.1 Density 11.2.1.2.2 Heat of combustion 11.2.1.2.3 Volatility, flammability, and explosive properties 11.2.1.2.4 Environmental properties 11.2.2 Synthetic gases 11.2.2.1 Producer gas 11.2.2.2 Blue water gas 11.2.2.3 Carbureted water gas 11.2.2.4 Coal and coke oven gas 11.2.2.5 Biogas 11.2.2.6 Wood gas 11.2.2.7 Refuse gas 11.3 Liquid Fuels 11.3.1 Methanol 11.3.2 Ethanol 11.3.3 Propanol and butanol 11.3.4 Bio-diesel 11.3.5 Hydrocarbon fuels 11.3.5.1 Naphtha and gasoline 11.3.5.2 Kerosene and diesel 11.3.5.3 Other fuels 11.4 Solid Fuels 11.4.1 Fuelwood 11.4.2 Logs and wood chips 11.4.3 Pellets and briquettes 11.4.3.1 Briquette manufacture 11.4.3.2 Bagasse briquettes 11.4.3.3 Sawdust briquettes 11.4.3.4 Urban waste briquettes 11.4.4 Charcoal 11.4.5 Coke 11.5 Fuel Quality 11.5.1 Bulk properties 11.5.2 Specifications References Chapter 12 Production of Fuels in a Biorefinery 12.1 Introduction 12.2 A Biorefinery 12.3 Feedstocks 12.3.1 Carbohydrates 12.3.2 Vegetable oils 12.3.3 Plant fibers 12.3.4 Waste 12.4 Process Options 12.4.1 Direct combustion 12.4.2 Fermentation and hydrolysis 12.4.3 Gasification 12.4.3.1 Gasification chemistry 12.4.3.2 Gasifiers 12.4.3.3 Synthesis gas 12.4.4 Pyrolysis 12.4.5 Anaerobic digestion 12.4.6 Transesterification 12.4.6.1 Feedstocks 12.4.6.2 Transesterification 12.4.6.3 Catalytic transesterification 12.4.6.4 Transesterification using supercritical methanol 12.4.6.5 Effect of process parameters 12.5 Alternate Fuels 12.5.1 Gaseous fuels 12.5.2 Liquid fuels 12.5.3 Solid fuels 12.6 Environmental Benefits and the Future References Conversion Factors Glossary Index