Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior

Description

This encyclopedia, representing one of the most multi-disciplinary areas of research, is a comprehensive examination of the key areas in animal cognition and behavior. It will serve as a complementary resource to the handbooks and journals that have emerged in the last decade on this topic, and will be a useful resource for student and researcher alike.  With comprehensive coverage of this field, key concepts will be explored.  These include social cognition, prey and predator detection, habitat selection, mating and parenting, development, genetics, physiology, memory, learning and perception. Attention is also given to animal-human co-evolution and interaction, and animal welfare.  All entries are under the purview of acknowledged experts in the field.  Preface About the Editors Section Editors Contributors A 11β,21-Dihydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione 11β,21-Dihydroxyprogesterone 2AFC 4-Pregnene-11β,21-diol-3,20-dione 4-Pregnene-3,20-dione Aardvark Synonyms Introduction Description Habitat Diet Vulnerabilities Life Cycle Cross-References References Abandonment Ablactation Absolute Number Discrimination Cross-References References Absolute Pitch Synonyms Definition Introduction The Etiology of AP Describing AP Conclusion Cross-References References Accessor Accessory Nipple Accidental/Intentional Experiment Synonyms Definition and Description Human Studies Nonhuman Studies Limitations Cross-References References Accipiters Synonyms Definition Introduction Habitat and Populations of Accipiters Color Morphs and Sexual Dimorphism Migration Behavior and Flight Pair Bonds Nesting Food Delivery and Brood Maturation Predation Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Accipitridae Accipitriformes Sensory Systems Synonyms Definition Introduction Vision Hearing Chemical Senses: Taste and Olfaction Somatic and Magnetic Senses Conclusions Cross-References References Acclimation Acclimatization Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Accumbens Nucleus Acoustic Communication Acoustic Signals Acquisition Definition Introduction What Relationships Are Acquired? Parameters That Affect Acquisition of an Association Acquisition of Higher-Order and Hierarchical Associations Acquisition Versus Performance Discrete Versus Real-Time Acquisition How Does Acquisition Take Place in the Brain? Conclusion Cross-References References Acquisition of Knowledge About Spatial Location Actinopterygii (Bony Fish) Synonyms Introduction Anatomy Skeleton Scales Cardiovascular System Respiratory System Swim Bladder Nervous System Sensory Systems Mechanoreception Chemoreception Vision Electroreception Reproduction Cross-References References Action Perception Action Potentials Synonyms Definition Introduction All-or-None Principle Measurement of an Action Potential Sodium-Potassium Pump Initiation Propagation Termination Chemical Neuromuscular Cross-References References Active Choice Judgment Active Memory Activity Anorexia Activity Budget Synonyms Definition Introduction Constructing an Activity Budget Activity Budgets in the Wild Activity Budgets in Captivity Conclusion and Future Directions Cross-References References Activity-Based Anorexia Synonyms Definition Historical Background Experimental Protocol Main Interpretations Influencing Factors Neurobiological Basis Conclusion Cross-References References Activity-Induced Anorexia Ad Hoc Sampling Adam Miklosi Early Life and Educational Background Professional Career Research Interests References Adaptation Synonyms Definition Introduction Historical Background Factors Affecting Adaptation Types of Adaptations Structural Adaptations Type of Teeth Body Coverings Camouflage/Mimicry Physiological Adaptations Behavioral Adaptations Hibernation Movement/Migration Nest Parasitism Current Approaches to Adaptation Conclusion/Summary Cross-References References Adaptation Studies Adaptations Adaptedness of Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Dependence on Environmental Conditions Plasticity of Behavior Early Life Experience and Development Population Characteristics Learning Optimal Behavior: Trade-Offs and Constraints Evolution of Behavior Interaction Between Plasticity and Evolution Variation Among Individuals Conclusion Cross-References References Adaptive Behavior Adaptive Diversification Adaptive Memory Synonyms Definition Introduction Animacy Mortality Salience Contamination Additional Fitness-Relevant Domains Conclusions Cross-References References Adaptive Radiation Synonyms Definition Introduction Ecological Opportunity: A Prerequisite for Adaptive Radiation Classical Examples of Adaptive Radiation Conclusion Cross-References References Adaptive Specialization Adaptive Superiority Addition Cross-References References Additive Genetic Variance Definition Introduction Phenotypic Variance Heritability Cross-References References Adjunctive Behavior Adolescence Synonyms Definition Introduction The Role of Hormones in the Onset of Puberty Neurological Development in Adolescence Differences in Cognition and Behavior During Adolescence Adolescence as a Sensitive Period of Development Conclusion Cross-References References Adrenalin Synonyms Definition Adrenal Glands Adrenal Cortex Adrenal Medulla Physiological Effects Biosynthesis Regulation Conclusion Cross-References References Adulthood Adventitious Reinforcement Affect Afferent and Efferent Impulses Synonyms Definition Introduction General Description Cross-References References Affiliative Behaviors Synonyms Definitions Introduction Affiliative Behaviors Factors That Influence Affiliative Behaviors The Benefits of Affiliative Behaviors Conclusion Cross-References References Affiliative Bond Synonyms Definition Adaptive Significance Proximate Mechanisms Bond Maintenance Bond Flexibility Cross-References References Affiliative Interaction Affiliative Relationships Affordance Affordances African Grey Parrot African Manatee Agamogenesis Age of Mammals Age-Graded Synonyms Definition Introduction Age, Fighting Ability, and Rank Conclusion Cross-References References Agent-Based Modelling Synonyms Definition Introduction History Designing and Running ABMs Analyzing ABMs Parameter Sensitivity Analysis Model Verification and Validation ABMs as Scientific Hypotheses Example: Flocking Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Age-Related Age-Related Decline Aggregation Definition Introduction Passive Versus Active Aggregations Mechanisms of Grouping Group Formation Collective Movements Group Disruption Costs and Benefits of Grouping Predation Risks Modifications of Local Conditions Information Transfer Mixed Species Aggregations Conclusion Cross-References References Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction Conspecific Aggression in Animals Neural Control of Aggression Controlling the Decision to Fight Controlling the Decision to Flee The Loser Effect Chronic Social Defeat Stress Genes and Aggression Conclusions Cross-References References Aggressive Mimicry Definition of ``Aggressive Mimicry´´ Mimicking Potential Prey Mimicking Potential Mates Chemical Mimicry Conclusion Cross-References References Aggressiveness Aging Aging Rate Agnosopsia Agonism Agonism and Social Status Definitions Agonism Influences on Agonism Social Status Influences on Status The Intersection of Agonism and Social Status Comparisons with Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Agonistic Behavior Synonyms Definition Overview Threat Behavior Aggressive Behavior Submissive Behavior Agonistic Behavior and Hormones Conclusion Cross-References References Aha Moment ``a-ha Moment´´ Ai (Chimpanzee) Aim AL 288-1 Alarm Calls Synonyms Definition Introduction The Functions of Alarm Calls The Mechanisms Underlying Alarm Calls References Alarm Signal Alarm Vocalization Alert Alex the Parrot Synonyms Early Life Laboratory Environment Training Techniques First Labels Concept of Category Object Permanence Concepts of Same/Difference Concept of Absence Relational Concepts Comprehension Studies Basic Number Concepts A Zero-Like Concept Addition Ordinality and Equivalence Could Alex´s Number Sense Resemble Children´s Even Further? Optical Illusions Conclusion Cross-References References Algae Definition Introduction Classification of Algae Algae and the Fossil Record Symbiotic Algae Algae and the Environment Cyanophyceae Chemical Defense Mechanisms of Algae Hydrogen Fuel Cells and Gas Production by Algae Conclusion Cross-References References Alkaloid Conclusion Cross-References References Allele Flow Allele Frequency Allele Sharing Synonyms Definition Introduction Allele Sharing Methods Conclusion Cross-References References Allele Sharing Methods Alleles Synonyms Definition What Are Alleles at Genetic Level? How Do Allelic Forms Arise? How Do Alleles Function Differently? Example of Allelic Systems: Single, Two, Multiple Dominant and Recessive Alleles Determination of Allelic and Genotype Frequencies in a Population Allelic Variants Contributing to Genetic Disorders Implications at Population Level Cross-References References Allelic Association Definition Introduction Types Allelic Association Mapping Using Single Nucleotide Polymorphs (SNPs) Allelic Association Versus Linkage Allelic Association Analysis Cross-References References Allelomorph Alligator Locomotion Allocare Allogrooming Synonyms Introduction Hygiene Sociality Grooming Markets Allogrooming as Chimpanzee Politics Cross-References References Allometry The Allometric Model Examples of Allometric Relationships Allometry Reflecting Adaptation or Constraint? Cross-References References Allomother Allomothering Alloparental Care Synonyms Definition Types of Alloparental Care Alloparental Care Across Breeding Systems Misdirected Parental Care Evolution of Alloparental Care Fitness Benefits of Alloparental Care to Parents and Their Offspring Fitness Costs of Alloparental Care to Alloparents Inclusive Fitness Benefits of Alloparental Care to Alloparents Direct Fitness Benefits of Alloparental Care to Alloparents Proximate Drivers of Alloparental Care Role of the Parents Alloparent Age, Sex, and Physical Condition Cross-References References Allopatric Speciation Etymology Synonyms Definition Reproductive Isolation Brief Historical Perspective A Classical and Current Example Darwin´s Finches Sydney Octopus Cross-References References Alpha Synonyms Definition Introduction Who Will Become the Alpha? Why Is Good to Be the Alpha? The Alpha Position and Stress Conclusion Cross-References References Alteration Alterations Alternative Mating Tactics Alternative Reproductive Strategies Alternative Reproductive Tactics Definitions Introduction Examples of ARTs in Males and in Females Species With and Without Morphological Differences Between ARTs What Does Not Represent ARTs? Strategies Underlying ARTs Development and ARTs Evolution of Strategies Underlying ARTs Endocrine Mechanisms of ARTs ARTs and Intraspecific Variation in Social Organization Conclusion Cross-References References Alternative Splicing Synonyms Definition Introduction Splicing Machinery Types of Alternative Splicing Alternative Splicing and Human Diseases Conclusion Cross-References References Altricial Synonyms Definition Introduction Altricial Aves Young Altricial Mammalia Young Selective Pressures for Altricial Young Broader Impact of Altricial Young Conclusion Cross-References References Altruism Origins of Altruism Types of Altruism Hamiltonian Altruism and Kin Selection Examples of Kin Selection A Recent Debate about Kin Selection Reciprocal Altruism Examples of Reciprocal Altruism Does Reciprocal Altruism Exist in Nonhuman Species? A Critique of Reciprocal and Genetic Altruism: Are They Really Separable? True Altruism and Ascetic Altruism Conceptualizations Does True Altruism Exist? Cross-References References Amazonian Manatee Ambiguous Cue Interpretation Amino Acid Definition Introduction Classification of Amino Acids Standard and Nonstandard Amino Acids Cross-References References Amniocentesis Synonyms Definition Introduction General Description Cross-References References Amniotic Fluid Test (AFT) Amodal Completion Synonyms Definition Introduction Cues to Perceive Amodal Completion Amodal Completion in Nonhuman Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Amphibia Amphibious Amphisbaenians Ampullae of Lorenzini Amygdala Definition Introduction Historical Developments Functional Properties of Amygdalar Nuclei (BLA, CeA, MeA, CoA) Two Examples of Emotional Processing: Auditory and Context Fear Conditioning Future Directions Cross-References References Anabolic Steroids Anaclitic Depression Synonyms Definition Introduction Origins of Anaclitic Depression Symptoms and Treatments in Human Infants Anaclitic Depression in Nonhuman Primates Differences in Symptoms and Severity Anaclitic Depression in Other Animals Conclusions Cross-References References Anagenesis References Analogical Reasoning Synonyms Definition Introduction Analogical Reasoning in Nonhuman Animals Processing of First-Order Relations in Nonhuman Animals Processing of Second-Order Relations in Language or Symbolic Competent Apes Processing of Second-Order Relations in Language-Naïve Primates and Birds Are There Alternative Explanations to Relational Responding? Conclusions Cross-References References Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH) Anatomy Andrew Whiten Biography Behavioral Ecology of Baboons Machiavellian Intelligence Chimpanzee Culture Experimental Methods for Studying Social Learning Diversity in Studies of Social Cognition in Captive Primate Populations Studies with Wild Primate Populations Studies with Human Children Public Engagement with Science Legacy Cross-References References Androgen Androgens Synonyms Definition Introduction Androgen Biosynthesis Androgens in Females Androgen Receptor Structure Mechanism of Androgen Action Nongenomic Action of Androgen Role of Androgens and Androgen Receptor in Sex Development Nonreproductive Function of Androgen Conclusions Cross-References References Anecdote Synonyms Cross-References References Anger Angiotensin Synonyms Definition Activation and Synthesis Types of Angiotensin and Their Roles Angiotensin I Roles Angiotensin II Roles Angiotensin III Roles Angiotensin IV Roles Conclusions Cross-References References Angiotonin Animacy Definition Introduction How It Has Been Studied Evidence for the Mnemonic Animacy Effect Proximate Mechanisms of the Animacy Effect Conclusion Cross-References References Animal ``Language´´ Animal Architecture Animal Care Animal Combat Animal Communication Animal Conflict Animal Defense Animal Emotion in Farmed Animal Welfare Assessment Synonyms Definitions Animal Welfare Emotion Introduction Do Farmed Animals Experience Emotion? Negative Valence: Fear Positive Valence: Happiness Animal Welfare Assessment and the Regulatory Framework Inputs Versus Outcome-Based Indicators of Welfare Animal Welfare Assessment in the United States Animal Welfare Assessment in the European Union Creating a Holistic Assessment of Welfare Through Inclusion of Indicators of Emotion Conclusion Cross-References References Animal Feed Industry Animal Hypnosis Animal Innovation Animal Kingdom Animal Language Animal Management Animal Mobility Animal Models Introduction Definition Concepts, Mistaken for, and Concepts that Are Closely Related to ``Animal Models´´ Screening Tests, Behavioral Bioassays, and Simulations Biological and Clinical Relevance Model Building as an Iterative Process Model Evaluation and Concepts of Validity Basic Classes of Validity Internal Validity and Reliability Face Validity Predictive Validity Construct Validity Subcriteria for Construct Validity External Validity, Standardization, and Generalization of Tests and Models Genetic and Environmental Validity Convergent Validity External Validity and Standardization Hypothesis-Free Model Building? Conclusion Cross-References References Animal Models of Autism List of Genes Introduction ASD: An Overview Animal Models of Repetitive Behaviors Rodent Models of Social Dysfunction Animal Models of Vocal Communication Genetic Models of ASD in Mice Environmental Models of ASD Valproic Acid Maternal Immune Activation Neural Network Substrates of Social Behavior Multisensory Integration and ASD Oxytocin, Social Behavior, and Autism Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Models Conclusion Cross-References References Animal Movement Animal Progression Animal Psychopathology Synonyms Introduction Animal Models of Depression Animal Models of Anxiety Animal Models of Schizophrenia Future Directions Cross-References References Animal Response to Fire Introduction Avoidance Association Habituation Interaction Conclusion Cross-References References Animal Sexual Behavior Animal Social Relations Animal Society Synonyms Definition What Is an Animal Society? The Evolution of Animal Society Conclusion References Animal Structure Animal Suffering Animal Tool Use Animal Welfare Synonyms Definition Introduction Historical Context Prevailing Models Complicating Factors Subjectivity Time Factors Groups The Role of Death Cultural Lenses Public Attitudes Selected Subtopics Analgesia Cosmetic Surgery Environmental Enrichment Extreme Confinement Low Stress Handling and Positive Training Why Is Welfare Such a Source of Conflict? Conclusion Cross-References References Animal Wellbeing Animal-Assisted Intervention Definition Introduction Types of Animal-Assisted Interventions Animal-Assisted Therapy Animal-Assisted Education Animal-Assisted Activities Theories of Action Biophilia Social Support Animal Welfare Conclusion Cross-References References Animal-Environment Mutuality Anisogamy Synonyms Definition Introduction Isogamy Anisogamy Oogamy Evolution of Anisogamy Role of Anisogamy in Animal Cognition and Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Anne Pusey Cross-References References Anointing References A-Not-B Problem Synonyms Definition Introduction Comparative Studies Spatial A-Not-B Errors Summary Conclusion Cross-References References Anseriformes Ant bear Anteater Anthony (Tony) A. Wright Cross-References References Anthropoid Anthropology Anthropomorphism References Anthropophagy (in Humans) Antiapostatic Selection Anticipation of Future Events Introduction Spatial Cognition and the Future Prudent Choices Preparation Conclusion Cross-References References Antillian Manatee Antipathy Antipredator Call Anti-predator Defense Antipredator Signal Antipredator Strategies Anuran Gaits Anuran Locomotion Anuran Movement Anuran Navigation Ape Ape Cognition and Conservation Initiative (ACCI) Definition Mission and Vision Science Conservation Civic Engagement History Ape Initiative´s Resources Future of Ape Initiative Cross-References References Ape Gaits Ape Locomotion Apes Aposematism Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolving Aposematism Signal Form Signal Honesty Conclusion Cross-References References Apparatus to Measure Spatial Learning and Memory Apparent Death Appearance Reality Tests Synonyms Definition Introduction AR Tests with Children AR Tests with Great Apes The Reverse Contingency Argument Related Cognitive Abilities and Tests Extensions of AR Tests in Animals Cross-References References Appearance Versus Reality Appendicular Skeleton Appetitive Response Synonyms Defining and Characterizing Appetitive Responding The Nature of Appetitive Responses Food Sex Drugs of Abuse Neural Substrates of Appetitive Behaviors Conclusion Cross-References References Applied Behavior Analysis Apprehension of Relations Approach Behavior Approach Test Approach/Withdrawal Theory A/W Theory Today Cross-References References Approximate Number System (ANS) Synonyms Definition Introduction The Approximate Number System Behavioral Evidence for the ANS: Quantity Judgments Behavioral Evidence for the ANS: Numerosity Judgments Controversy: One Number System or Two? Summary Cross-References References Arabic Numerals Cross-References References Arachnids Arbitrariness Arbitrary Stimuli Synonyms Definition Introduction Cross-References References Arboreality Introduction Cognitive Challenges of Arboreal Environments Arboreal Nest Building Arboreal Locomotion Arboreal Cognitive Maps Caring for Arboreal Animals in Zoos Conclusion Cross-References References Archaea Definition Introduction Phylogenetic and Metabolic Diversity of Archaea Archaeal Cell Wall and Membrane Genetics and Molecular Biology of Archaebacteria Genetic Exchange and Gene Transfer Thermostability in Archaea Phylum Crenarchaeota Phylum Euryarchaeota Conclusion Cross-References References Archaeology Architecture Area Arguments Aristotle Intellectual Biography Scientific Method and Observation Animal Intellect and Teleology Cross-References References Arm-Foot Hanging Arm-Hanging Armored Fish Armored Fish Locomotion Armoured Fish Arousal Synonyms Definition Introduction Measuring Arousal Main Findings Conclusion Cross-References References Arousal Regulation Arthropod Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Associative Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Spatial Cognition Path Integration Landmarks and the Panorama Cognitive Maps Social Cognition Honeybee Dance Observational Learning Distributed Cognition Embodied Cognition Extended Cognition Conclusions Cross-References References Arthropod Diet Synonyms Definition Introduction Shredding Arthropods Predatory Arthropods Herbivorous Arthropods Fungal Feeding Arthropods Conclusion Cross-References References Arthropod Life History Definition Introduction Reproduction Parental Care and Sociality Birth and Growth Conclusion Cross-References References Arthropod Morphology Definition Introduction General Characteristics Classification Subphylum Trilobitomorpha (Gk., Tri = Three + Lobos = Lobe) Subphylum Chelicerata (Gk., Chele = Claw + Keras = Horn + Ata = Group) Class Merostomata Class Arachnida Class Pycnogonida Subphylum Mandibulata (L., Mandibula = Mandible + Ata = Group) Class Crustacea (L., Crusta = Shell) Class Chilopoda (Gk., Cheilos = Lip + Pous = Foot) Class Diplopoda (Gk., Diploos = Double + Podos = Foot) Class Symphyla (Gk., Syn = Together + Phylon = Tribe) Class Pauropoda Class Insecta Subphylum Onychophora (Gk., Onych = Claw + Phor = To Carry/Bear) Conclusion Cross-References References Arthropod Navigation Synonyms Definition Introduction Path Integration Spatial Memory Image Matching Map-Like Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Articulatory Rehearsal Loop Artificial Food Patches Artificial Foraging Trays Artificial Fruit Definition Artificial Fruits and the Two-Action Method Applications Cross-References References Artificial Selection Definition Introduction Responses to Artificial Selection Artificial Selection in Plants and Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Artiodactyl Artiodactyl Cognition Synonyms Introduction Social Cognition Nonsocial Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Artiodactyl Life Cycle Artiodactyl Life Story Artiodactyla Diet Synonyms Definition Introduction Suborder Ruminantia Bovidae Diet Cervidae Diet Giraffidae Diet Tragulidae Diet Moschidae Diet Antilocapridae Diet Suborder Tylopoda Camelid Diet Suborder Suliformes Suidae Diet Tayassuidae Diet Hippopotamidae Diet Conclusion Cross-References References Artiodactyla Life History Synonyms Definitions Introduction Debate: Cetacea as Artiodactyl Physiological and Morphological Adaptations in Artiodactyls Sexual Selection in Artiodactyls Reproductive Strategies in Artiodactyls Social Order in Artiodactyls Resource Allocation/Foraging Strategy Conclusion Cross-References References Artiodactyla Locomotion Synonyms Definition Gait Sequences Limb Loading Gait Kinematics Vertical Substrate-Use in Goats Migratory Practices Human Interaction Conclusion Cross-References References Artiodactyla Morphology Synonyms Introduction Morphology of Artiodactyl Extremities Evolution of the Gastrointestinal Tract Within Artiodactyla Artiodactyla Skull Morphology Sexual Maturity and Reproduction Coat and Coloration of Artiodactyls Conclusion Cross-References References Artiodactyla Navigation Synonyms Definition Introduction Herding Behavior Migration Home Range Movement Conclusion Cross-References References Asexual Reproduction Synonyms Definition Introduction Binary Fission Budding Vegetative Reproduction Sporogenesis Fragmentation Agamogenesis Advantages Disadvantages Alternating Use Conclusion Cross-References References Assemblage Synonyms Introduction Comparative Studies Fossil Assemblages Tool Assemblages Cross-References References Assistance Dogs Associative Learning Synonyms Introduction Basic Concepts in Associative Learning Learning Versus Performance Procedure Versus Process Phenomena Versus Mechanisms Complex Conditioning Phenomena Goal-Directed and Habitual Behavior Species Similarities and Differences in Learning Phenomena Problem Solving Conclusions Cross-References References Associative Mechanisms Synonyms Definition Aristotelian Associations Associationism and the British Empiricism Movement Russian Medicine, Physiology, and Associations Pavlov´s Associative Learning The Association and American Behaviorism Comparative Classical Conditioning Modern Associative Learning Theory Successful Predictions Strengths and Shortcomings of the Model Associations and Operant Conditioning From Associationism to Connectionism to Cognitive Neuroscience Associations, Connectionism, Neuroscience, and the Single Cell Associations and Neuroscience Single-Cell Associative Learning Cross-References References Associative Striatum Assortative Mating Synonyms Definition Introduction Which Mechanisms Can Generate Assortative Mating? Adaptive Hypotheses Nonadaptive Hypotheses Variation in the Strength of Assortative Mating What Are the Phenotypic Cues of Assortative Mating Preferences? What Are the Evolutionary Consequences of Assortative Mating? Assortative Mating and Population Genetics Assortative Mating and Speciation Conclusion Cross-References References Assortative Pairing Assortment Synonyms Definition Introduction Dihybrid Cross Independent Assortment and Meiosis Linked Genes: Inconsistency of Independent Assortment Conclusion Cross-References References Attachment Synonyms Definition Introduction Rhesus Monkeys Peer-Rearing Components of Attachment Evolutionary Basis of Attachment Attachment Quality Genetic Contributions to Attachment Effects of Child Abuse on Attachment Outcomes Conclusion Cross-References References Attention Definition Attention as Observing Responses Types of Attention The Control of Attention Cross-References References Attention Bias Definition Cross-References References Attention Span Attentional Set-Shifting Test Attention-Deficit Disorder (ADD) Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Synonyms Definition Introduction Diagnosis and Symptoms Prevalence Pathophysiology Genetic Studies Treatment Pharmacological Interventions Non-pharmacological Interventions Conclusion Cross-References References Attention-Getting Behaviors Introduction Development Mechanisms Functions and Behavioral Differences According to the Studied Species Conclusion Cross-References References Attentive Attraction Audition Auditory Coding Auditory Perception Auditory Processing and Perception Behavioral Value of Hearing and Acoustic Signaling Hearing in Birds and Mammals: Structures and Mechanics Auditory Processing of Sound Location Auditory Processing of Social Information Summary Cross-References References Auditory Signals Synonyms Definition Introduction Sound-Producing Mechanisms Vocalizations: The Larynx Vocalizations: The Syrinx Sound Detection Mechanisms Sound Detection in Invertebrates Sound Detection in Vertebrates Sound Transmission Sound Attenuation Sound Interference and Noise Conclusion Cross-References References Aunting Australopithecus afarensis (A. afarensis) Autobiographical Memory and Procedural Memory Autoshaping Synonyms Introduction The Discovery of Autoshaping: The Brown and Jenkins (1968) Experiment Early Investigations of Autoshaping Effects of the CS-US Contingency Effects of Trial Duration and Trial Spacing Theoretical Implications of Autoshaping Autoshaping and Positive Behavioral Contrast Autoshaping and Feature-Learning Autoshaping and the Failure of Self-Control Autoshaping and Drug Addiction Conclusion Cross-References References Autosome Synonyms Definition Introduction Mapping of Autosomes Monosomies Trisomies Autosomal Inheritance Conclusion Cross-References References Web References Autozygosity Auxiliary Avian Avian Cognition Avian Striatal Complex Introduction Organization and Development of the Avian Striatal Complex Cellular Composition of the Avian Basal Ganglia Corticothalamic Basal Ganglia Loops in the Avian Brain and Their Functions Medial Striatum Area X Dorsal Strip of Striatum Lateral Striatum Olfactory Tubercles Nucleus Accumbens Cross-References References Avoidance Synonyms Definition Introduction Avoidance Is Ubiquitous in Nature Avoidance in the Laboratory Avoidance Procedures Nature of the Avoidance Response The Instrumental Contingency The Role of Escape in Avoidance Behavior Theories of Avoidance Fear Reduction Reinforcement Through Conditioned Inhibition Response Expectancies Current Directions in Avoidance Research Conclusion Cross-References References Avoidance Test Awareness Axial Skeleton Axon Synonyms Definition Introduction Structure and Function Development Role in Action Potential Myelination Deterioration in Injury and Disease Cross-References References B B.F. Skinner Introduction Biography Harvard University (1928-1936) The Minnesota Years The Harvard Years Radical Behaviorism From Darwin to Selection by Consequences Cross-References References Babbling Bachelor Herds Back-Test Synonyms Procedure Application Animal Versions Cross-References References Bacteria Synonyms Definition Introduction Two Approaches to Cognition Bacterial Cognition and Scientific Opinion Bacteria and the Cognitive Toolkit Sociality, Communication, and Development: Ratchets for Complexity Conclusion Cross-References References Badgers Balance Balanced Polymorphism Synonyms Definition Introduction Examples of Balanced Polymorphism Evolutionary Significance of Balanced Polymorphism Cross-References References Balancing Selection Basal Cognition Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) Metabolic Rate and Various Types BMR Versus RMR Standard Metabolic Rate Conditions to Measure BMR Conditions Affecting BMR Methods to Measure BMR BMR in Torpor and Hibernation Cross-References References Base of Skull Base Pair Synonyms Definition Introduction Base Analogs and Intercalators Role of Base Pair in Animal Cognition and Behavior Summary Cross-References References Base-Rate Neglect Synonyms Introduction Base-Rate Neglect in Pigeons Conclusions Cross-References References Basic Rank Synonyms Definition Introduction Individual Characteristics and Rank Conclusion Cross-References References Bateman Gradient Synonyms Definition Introduction Definition Measurement and Interpretation The Strength of Sexual Selection Sex Differences in the Bateman Gradient Cross-References References Batesian Mimicry Definition Background Conditions of Batesian Mimicry Visual Batesian Mimicry Behavioral Batesian Mimicry Acoustic Batesian Mimicry Batesian Mimicry Evolution Cross-References References Bats Bear Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Basic Research on Bear Cognition Cross-References References Bear Communication Synonyms Introduction Olfactory Communication Rub Trees Pede Marking Anogenital Secretions, Urine, and Feces Visual Communication Auditory Communication Gustatory Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Bear Diet Synonyms Introduction American Black Bear (Ursus americanus) Andean Bear (Tremarctos ornatus) Asiatic Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus) and Sun Bear (Helarctos malayanus) Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) Giant Panda Bear (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus) Conclusion References Bear Gaits Bear Intelligence Bear Life History Synonyms Introduction Reproductive Life History Traits Survival Life History Traits Special Adaptations Senescence and Death Cross-References References Bear Locomotion Synonyms Definition Bear Gaits and General Locomotor Behaviors Plantigrade Locomotion Arboreal Locomotion Swimming Captive Pacing Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Bear Management Synonyms Definition Introduction Managing Bears in the Wild Managing Bears in Captivity Conclusion Cross-References References Bear Morphology Introduction General Morphology Coat Body Shape and Skeletal Structure Locomotor System Skull and Dentition Digestive Tract Other Organ Systems Reproductive Urinary Respiratory and Circulatory Cross-References References Bear Navigation Synonyms Introduction Polar Bear Navigation Homing Social Cues Working Memory Conclusion Cross-References References Bear Sensory Systems Introduction Visual Perception (Vision) Auditory Perception (Hearing) Sound Perception Vocalizations in Bears Olfactory Perception (Olfaction) Tactile Perception (Touch) Gustation (Taste) Cross-References References Begging Synonyms Definition Introduction Begging as a Form of Manipulation Models of Honest Begging Conclusion Cross-References References Begging Paradigm Behavior Behavior Catalogue Behavior Modification Synonyms Definition Introduction Principles of Behavior Modification Derived from Pavlov´s Work Operant Conditioning Techniques and Behavior Modification Functional Behavior Analysis as a Hallmark of Behavior Modification The Application of Behavior Modification to Nonhuman Animal Behavior Cross-References References Behavior Plasticity Behavior Systems Beginnings in Ethology Behavioral Context of Behavior Model of the Animal Evolution Behavior Systems/Neural Systems/Motivational Systems Timberlake´s Theory of Learning Three-Mode Model Connections with Other Sciences Cross-References References Behavior Therapy Behavioral Accommodation Behavioral Adaptations Behavioral Contrast Behavioral Control Behavioral Disorders Behavioral Diversification Behavioral Evolution Behavioral Flexibility Synonyms Definition Introduction Ecological Flexibility Social and Demographic Flexibility Flexibility to Anthropogenic Changes Conclusion Cross-References References Behavioral Genetics Introduction The Genetic Architecture of Behavior Candidate Mechanisms for Behavior Genetics Assessing the Genetic Background of Animal Behavior Determining the Behavior Phenotype Genetic Analyses Genetic Background of Specific Behaviors Interactions Between Genes and Environment Conclusions Cross-References References Behavioral Genomics Synonyms Definition Introduction Cognition Social Interactions Pathology Relevance to Understanding Human Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Behavioral Innovation Behavioral Lateralization Behavioral Levels Cross-References References Behavioral Neuroscience Behavioral Plasticity Behavioral Profile Behavioral Qualities Behavioral Response Behavioral Stochasticity Measure of Behavioral Variability Strategic Stochasticity Stochasticity´s Underlying Mechanisms Cross-References References Behavioral Syndrome Behavioral Syndromes Behavioral Variation Synonyms Definition Introduction General Description Conclusion Cross-References References Behaviorism Introduction Associationism Extinction Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination Higher-Order Conditioning John Watson Behavior Therapy Neobehaviorism Methodological Behaviorism and Radical Behaviorism Skinner´s Operant Conditioning Contexts of Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Punishment The Case against Punishment Schedules of Reinforcement Extinction Differential Reinforcement Shaping and Chaining Applied Behavior Analysis Skinner´s Philosophy of Behaviorism Sociobehaviorism Reciprocal Determinism Observational Learning Outcome Expectations and Self-Efficacy Conclusion Cross-References References Benefectance Benefits for Aggression in Humans Synonyms Definition of Aggression Introduction Categorizations of Aggression Reactive-Inexpressive Reactive-Expressive Proactive/Instrumental Sex Differences in Types of Aggression Theories of Aggression Instinct Theories Social Learning Theories Cultural Interpretation or Display of Aggression Physiological Differences in Aggression Brain Activation and Hormones Socioeconomic Status and Aggression Benefits of Aggression Procreation Animal Studies of Aggression Conclusion Cross-References References Bennett G. Galef Cross-References References Bernd Heinrich Introduction Heinrich´s (Unconventional) Life and Educational Background Scientific Career and Output Cross-References References Best-Fit Models Beta Synonyms Definition Introduction Advantages of the Beta Position The Beta Position and Stress Conclusion Cross-References References Betta Splendens, the Siamese Fighting Fish Cross-References References Biased Decision Making Bigamy Bilateral Symmetry Synonyms Definition Introduction Bilateral Symmetry Advantages of Bilateral Symmetrical Body Phylum in Animal Kingdom Showing Bilateral Symmetry References Bill McGrew Introduction Academic Studies and Career Research Cross-References References Bimodal Activity Pattern Binary Fission Mechanism Proteins and Their Roles in Binary Fission Fts Proteins Other Proteins Conclusion Cross-References References Binocular Depth Cues Binocular Vision Binomial Nomenclature Biodiversity Biodiversity Hotspot Biogeography Cross-References References Bioindicator Bioinformatics Synonyms Definition Introduction Biological Databases Overview on Sequence Homology-Based Protein Function Prediction Overview on Nonhomology-Based Protein Function Prediction Machine-Learning Classifiers in Bioinformatics Next-Generation Sequencing Data Analysis Cross-References References Biological Clocks Synonyms Definition Introduction Daily Cycles: Circadian Rhythms Seasonal Cycles: Migration and Dormancy Age/Fertility Conclusion Cross-References References Biological Cycle Biological Databases Biological Evolution Biological Material Derived from Living or Recently Living Organisms Biological Motion Biological Nomenclature Biological Preparedness Definition Introduction History: From Behaviorism to Preparedness, Constraints, and Adaptive Specializations Prominent Examples of Preparedness: Taste Aversion, Fear, and Phobias Mechanisms for Preparedness Predicting Preparedness Conclusion Cross-References References Biological Rhythms Introduction Biological Rhythms Are Maintained by Biological Clocks Exogenous and Endogenous Rhythms Main Types of Biological Rhythms Cross-References References Biological Time Biologically Significant Stimuli Biomass Synonyms Definition References Biomonitor Biorhythm Biosociology References Biosonar Biotype Biparental Care Definition Introduction Evolutionary of Sex Roles and Biparental Care Evolutionary Alternatives: Remating Opportunities Optimal Parental Investment in Biparental Care Division of Labor Conclusion Cross-References References Bipedalism Definition Bipedalism: An Unusual Locomotor Form Bipedalism in Modern Humans and Other Primates Bipedalism in Other Primates Anatomical Features Associated with Obligate Bipedalism and Their Evolution Development of Bipedalism Why Bipedalism Evolved Conclusions Cross-References References Bird Migrations Definition Introduction Performance (Speed and Distance) Specialization Versus Plasticity In Flight Decision-Making: When to Deviate from a Direct Path Toward a Migratory Goal Wind and Drift Barriers Long-Term Memory Navigation: Maps and Compasses Compass Mechanisms Vector Navigation Map-Based Navigation Kramer´s Map and Compass Model Brain Architecture Conclusions Cross-References References Bird Song Birds Birth Birth Order Bisexual Definition Introduction History Theories Prevalence Prejudice Animal Bisexuality Conclusion Cross-References References Bleating Blindsight Synonyms Definition History Characteristics Theories Neurobiology Conclusion Cross-References References Blocking Definition Background Cross-References References Blodgett Effect Blood Board Bob Cook Cross-References References Body Clock Body Decoration Body Type Bonding Bos taurus Bottleneck Effect Cross-References References Bottlenose Dolphins Bottom-Up Processing Synonyms Definition Bottom-Up Perceptual Processes Categorization Models of Personality Models of Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Bourgeois Strategy Synonyms Definition Introduction History of Theoretical Research Bourgeois Strategy in Nature Conclusion Cross-References References Bovinae Bovine Bovine Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Discriminating Objects and Humans Discriminating Conspecifics Cognitive Development Spatial Cognition Social Learning Communication Cognitive Bias Conclusion Cross-References References Bovine Diet Synonyms Definition Introduction What Do Bovines Eat? Feeding Behavior Early Life Social Learning and Social Facilitation Adult Feeding Patterns Foraging Strategies Ruminant Digestive System Conclusion Cross-References References Bovine Gaits Bovine Life History Synonyms Introduction Taxonomic Classification Boselaphini and Tragelaphini Tribes Bovini Tribe Reproduction and Life History Four-Horned Antelopes Spiral-Horned Antelopes Water Buffalo Domestic Cattle Bison Conclusion References Bovine Locomotion Synonyms Definition Major Locomotor Modes Lameness Conclusion Cross-References References Bowerbird Aesthetics and Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction History of Bowerbird Analysis Bowerbird Aesthetics Bowerbird Cognition Avian Aesthetics and Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Bowerbirds Introduction Courtship Bower Types Bower Decorations Other Components of Courtship Displays Mimicry Bower Marauding Female Choice Bowerbird Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Bower-Birds Brachiation Which Animal Species Use This Behavior to Move? Why Gibbons Choose This Type to Move? How Do the Gibbons Fulfill This Behavior? Anatomical Structure Cross-References Brain Brain Asymmetry Definition Introduction Evolutionary Theory of Brain Asymmetry Evolutionary Organization of Anatomical Asymmetry Expansion of Brain Size Left Hemisphere Dominance as Volume Asymmetries Brain Asymmetry in Nonhuman Species History and Background of Brain Asymmetry Few Important Facts of Brain Asymmetry Types of Brain Asymmetry Anatomical Asymmetries Neurochemical Asymmetries Physiological Asymmetries Psychophysiological Asymmetries Behavioral Asymmetries Determining Factors of Brain Asymmetry Environmental Factors Genetics of Brain Asymmetry Genetics of Asymmetry of Handedness Genetic of Asymmetry of Language Gender-Specific Asymmetry Functional Adaptation Aberrant Asymmetries and Disease Conclusion References Brain Circuit Brain Evolution Brain Imaging Brain/Cerebral/Hemispheric Asymmetry Breathing Bring up Brodmann Area 28 Broken Wing Display Synonyms Definition Description Cross-References References Brood Defense Brooding Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of Brooding Cost of Brooding and Counteracting Adaptations Diversity of Brooding Behaviors Cross-References References Bruce Effect Synonyms Definition Introduction Bruce Effect in Mice Adaptive Reproductive Strategy Generalized Bruce Effect Conclusion Cross-References References Bucket Experiment Synonyms Definition Introduction Overall Chimpanzee Performance The Wrong Kind of Experiment Beyond Chimpanzees Conclusion Cross-References References Bud Budding Synonyms Definitions Mechanism of Cellular Budding Mechanism of Budding in Hydra Budding in Yeast Mitochondrial Budding Conclusion Cross-References References Bush Hyrax Bushmeat Trade Human Health Tackling the Problem Cross-References References C C. Lloyd Morgan About His Life Theoretical Contributions In Search for a Scientific Comparative Psychology Emerging Evolution Animal Intelligence Morgan´s Canon Morgan´s Legacy His Published Work Cross-References References Cainozoic Era Camouflage Synonyms Definition Introduction Acoustic Camouflage Chemical Camouflage Electric Camouflage Motion Camouflage Tactile Camouflage Strategies Against Camouflage Conclusion Cross-References References Canalization Definition Introduction Canalization and Cryptic Variations Canalization and Genetic Assimilation Conclusion Cross-References References Candidate Gene Synonyms Definition Introduction How to Carry Out a Candidate Gene Study? Role of Candidate Gene Approaches in Complex Genetic Traits Digital Candidate Gene Approach (DigiCGA) Limitations of Candidate Gene Approach Conclusion Cross-References References Canine Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Perception Visual Perception Olfactory Perception Auditory Perception Non-Social Cognition Learning Memory Object Permanence Means-End Reasoning Social Cognition Following Human Social Cues Attention to Attention Imitation Impossible Task Conclusion Cross-References References Canine Communication Synonyms Definition Introduction Vocal Communication Olfactory Communication Visual Communication Tactile Communication Canine Behavioral and Welfare Problems due to Incomplete Understanding of Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Canine Diet Synonyms Definition Introduction Canine Dietary Ecology The Canine Digestive System Dentition Digestive Anatomy and Physiology Feeding Behavior Canine Nutritional Requirements Conclusion Cross-References References Canine Feeding Canine Food Intake Canine Gaits Canine Life History Definition Introduction Characteristics Lifespan Foraging Behavior Social Behavior Breeding Strategies Reproduction Cross-References References Canine Locomotion Synonyms Definition Gait Patterns in Domestic Dogs Comparisons with Wild Canids Anthropogenic Influence on Canine Locomotion Conclusion Cross-References References Canine Morphology Synonyms Definition Introduction The Caninae Canine Morphological Characteristics Skull Morphology Dentition Jaw Morphology Limb Morphology The Domestic Dog: Breed-Specific Morphology Conclusion Cross-References References Canine Navigation Synonyms Definition Introduction The Biology of Navigation Canine Navigation Path Integration Navigation by the Sky Olfaction and Navigation Magnetic Fields and Navigation Spatial Navigation in Canids Navigation to Objects by the Domestic Dog Conclusion Cross-References References Canine Shape Canine Structure Cannibalism Synonyms Definition Introduction Cannibalizing Mates Cannibalizing Offspring Conclusion References Canopy Definition Introduction Architecture and Function of Canopy Forest Canopies and Biodiversity Conclusion Cross-References References Captivity Introduction Is Animal Captivity Inherently Wrong? Justifications Versus Objections Captivity for Conservation? Towards a Bifocal View on Zoo Animals Overcoming Welfare Problems Caused by Space Shortage Improving Animal Welfare by Environmental Enrichment Broadening the Zoo´s Conservation Role Conclusion References Caracara Locomotion Cardinality Synonyms Definition Introduction Cardinality in Relation to Other Numerical Concepts Cardinality and Counting Cardinality and Nonhuman Subjects Cross-References References Cardiovascular System Care Staff Caregiver Caretaker Effect Synonyms Cross-References References Caring Carl Woese Carnivora Synonyms Definition Introduction Morphology Ecology Behavior Conservation Carnivora Families Suborder Feliformia Suborder Caniformia Cross-References References Carnivore (Diet) Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of the Carnivore Dietary Strategy Classification of Carnivores Carnivorous Organisms Obligate Carnivores and Facultative Carnivores Nutritional Requirements of the Carnivore Characteristics of the Carnivore for Diet Acquisition and Processing Conclusion Cross-References References Carrier Synonyms Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Web References Cartesian Dualism Definition Introduction The Context of Cartesian Dualism The Creation of Cartesian Dualism Interactionism Implications for Nonhuman Animals Modern Context Conclusion Cross-References References Cartilaginous Fishes Cas9 Caste Introduction Behavioral Castes Morphological Castes Diversity of Morphological Castes Basis of Morphological Caste Formation Cross-References References Cat Behavior Cat Cognition Cat Communication Cat Diet Cat Family Cat Intelligence Cat Locomotion Cat Morphology Cat Navigation Cat Senses Cat Sensory Systems Catarrhine Catarrhine Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Primate Cognition Concepts and Categorization Tool Use Memory Self-Awareness and Social Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Catarrhine Communication Synonyms Definition Introduction Visual Communication Skin Coloration and Swellings Facial Expression Visual Gestures Acoustic Communication Vocalizations Unvoiced Calls Auditory Gestures Tactile Communication Olfactory Communication Multimodal Use of Signals Conclusion Cross-References References Catarrhine Diet Introduction Old-World Monkeys Colobines Cercopithecines Apes Asian Apes African Apes Cross-References References Catarrhine Life History Synonyms Definition Introduction Life History Parameters Reproductive Cycles Reproductive Maturity Reproductive Seasonality Gestation, Birth, and Weaning Dispersal Body Size Lifespan Social Organization Group Composition Group Size Parenting Grooming Conclusion Cross-References References Catarrhine Locomotion Synonyms Definitions Introduction Cercopithecoids Cercopithecines Colobines Hominoids Conclusion Cross-References References Catarrhine Morphology Definition Introduction Catarrhine Origins Major Cranial Characters Major Dental Characters Major Postcranial Characters Conclusion Cross-References References Catarrhine Navigation Introduction The Concept of Cognitive Maps Integrated Memories of Location and Food Type Anticipation of Food Type Travel Among Several Locations Route Maps Versus Euclidean Maps Large-Scale Navigation in Humans Conclusions Cross-References References Catarrhine Sensory Systems Definition Introduction The Five Senses Vision Audition Olfaction Gustation Somatosensation The Neglected Sense Proprioception Conclusion Cross-References References Categorization Definition Introduction Theories in Animal Categorization Tasks in Animal Categorization Research Stimuli in Animal Categorization Research Prototypes and Exemplars in Animal Categorization Research What Kinds Are Natural? The Search for Rules and Hypotheses in Animal Categorization Research The Search for Relational Concepts in Animal Categorization A Broader Synthesis Cross-References References Cathemeral Synonyms Definition Introduction Environmental Cues Adaptive Value of a Flexible Activity Pattern Conclusion Cross-References References Cat-Human Bond Cattarhine Morphology Cattle Caudata Caudata Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction The Brain Cognitive Ecology Courtship and Reproduction Quantitative and Numerical Discrimination Chemical Communication Visual Communication Homing, Migration, and Orientation Territoriality and Nesting Sexual Differences in Territoriality Dear Enemy Recognition and Mating Systems Conclusion Cross-References References Caudata Locomotion Synonyms Definition Major Locomotor Modes Influence of Caudata Locomotion on Neuromechanics and Bio-inspired Robotics Cross-References References Caudata Sensory Systems Synonyms Introduction Mechanosensory System: Body Position and Movement, Hearing, Lateral Line, Ampullary Organs Sense Organs of the Inner Ear Additional Structures Involved in Hearing: The Middle Ear Additional Structures Involved in Hearing: The Periotic Labyrinth Auditory Abilities Lateral Line Organs and Electroreceptive Ampullary Organs Olfactory/Vomeronasal Chemoreception Taste Chemoreception Photoreception Cutaneous Receptors Cross-References References Caudate Caudate Nucleus Causal Understanding Cecilia Heyes Cross-References References Cell Division Cell Membrane Structure and Function Proteins and Gases in the Membrane Protein Channels in the Membrane Cross-References References Cenozoic Era Synonyms Definition Introduction The Beginning of the Cenozoic Era The Cenozoic Timescale Cenozoic Events in a Chronological Order Paleocene (65.5-55.8 mya) Paleocene Fauna Paleocene Oceans Paleocene Flora Paleogeography Paleoclimate Eocene (55.8-33.9 mya) Eocene Fauna Eocene Flora Eocene Oceans Eocene Geography Eocene Climate Oligocene (33.9-23.03 mya) Oligocene Fauna Oligocene Flora Oligocene Oceans Oligocene Geography Oligocene Climate Miocene Miocene Fauna Miocene Flora Miocene Oceans Miocene Geography Miocene Climate Pliocene Pliocene Fauna Pliocene Flora Pliocene Oceans Pliocene Geography Pliocene Climate Pleistocene Pleistocene Fauna Pleistocene Flora Pleistocene Oceans Pleistocene Climate and Geography Defined by Glaciation Holocene Holocene Fauna Holocene Flora Holocene Geography Holocene Climate Conclusion Cross-References References Center of Mass CentiMorgan (cM) Synonyms Definiton Introduction Relation to Recombination Frequency Conclusion Cross-References References Central Dogma of Life Central Executive Central Nervous System Central Place Foraging Definition Introduction Modeling Optimal Strategies Empirical Tests Criticisms of Central Place Foraging Models What to Optimize Spatial Cognition and Foraging Conclusion Cross-References References Centromere Definition Introduction Molecular Structure of Centromere Diversity Among Centromeres Chromosomes with Unusual Centromere: Dicentrics, Acentromerics, and Neocentromere Shape and Morphology of Chromosomes Defined on the Basis of Location of Centromere Conclusion Cross-References References Cephalization From Cephalization to Encephalization Brain Size and EQ in Mammals Conclusion Cross-References References Cephalopod Adaptations Cephalopod Behavior Cephalopod Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Chromatophores and Camouflage Extraordinary Eyes Investigative Arms and Minds Higher-Level Functioning Conclusions Cross-References References Cephalopod Communication Introduction Visual Communication Skin Displays for Camouflage Male Sexual Displays and Game Theory Chemical Communication References Cephalopod Diet Introduction Nutritional Requirements and Prey Preferences Detecting Prey Predatory Strategies Feeding Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Cephalopod Life History Introduction Egg to Paralarvae Nonreproductive Adulthood Reproductive Adulthood Senescence Cross-References References Cephalopod Morphology Definition Introduction The Nervous System Sense Organs Mechanoreceptors Chemoreceptors Photoreceptors Effectors Muscles Arms and Tentacles Skin Buccal Mass Ink Sac Cross-References References Cephalopod Sensory Systems Introduction Photoreception Mechanoreception Chemoreception Conclusions Cross-References References Ceprano (A ``Transitional´´ Homo calvarium) Cross-References References Cercopithecine Cercopithecoid Cerebellum Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution Evolution in Invertebrates Evolution in Vertebrates Evolution in Mammals Comparison Between Cerebellum-Like Structure and Cerebellum Morphology Anatomy Division of Lobes in the Cerebellum Functional Classification of the Cerebellum Microcircuit of the Cerebellum Granular Layer Purkinje Cell Layer Molecular Layer Afferent Fibers of the Cerebellum Efferent Fibers of the Cerebellum Deep Nuclei Connections of the Cerebellum Cerebellar Dysfunctions Disorders of the Cerebellum Cross-References References Cerebral Asymmetry Cerebrotype Cross-References References Cetacean Behavior Toward the Dead and Dying Evolutionary Origin of Grieving Among Mammals Epimeletic Behavior Cases of Epimeletic Behavior Caregivers and Receivers Learning to Mother Resuscitation Attempts Length of Carry and Phases of Grief Surrogates and Other Species Neural Basis of Grieving Conclusion Cross-References References Cetacean Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Echolocation and the dolphin´s Perceptual World Communication Social Learning in the Laboratory Social Learning in the Wild Learning and Memory Other Approaches to Cognition: Brain, Behavior, and Consciousness Conclusion Cross-References References Cetacean Communication Introduction Components of Communication Modes of Communication Signals Acoustic Communication Mysticetes - Acoustic Communication Odontocetes: Acoustic Communication Stereotypy Mimicry Nonvocal Communication Visual Communication Postures Bubbles Object Carrying Tactile Communication Cetacean Communication Cognition Summary Cross-References References Cetacean Diet Definition Introduction What Do Cetaceans Eat? Feeding Strategies Methods to Study Diet Stomach Content Analysis Fatty Acid Analysis Stable Isotope Analysis Other Methods Conclusion Cross-References References Cetacean Life History Definition Introduction Reproduction Mating Age at First Birth Birthing Interval Parental Care Senescence Growth Neonate Size Patterns of Growth Maximum Size Survival Longevity Predation Movement Patterns Feeding Ecology Conclusion Cross-References References Cetacean Locomotion Synonyms Definition Introduction Morphology Physiology Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Cetacean Morphology The Origin of Modern Cetaceans Outer Appearance and the Head The Brain The Sense Organs and Cranial Nerves Skin Respiration, Circulation, and Diving Inner Organs Cross-References References Cetacean Navigation Synonyms Definition Introduction Acoustic Cues Visual Cues Geomagnetic Cues Cultural Transmission Conclusion Cross-References References Cetacean Sensory Systems Synonyms Introduction Vision Hearing Chemoreception Somatosensation Balance Electroreception Magnetoreception Conclusion Cross-References References Chaining Change Change Blindness Definition Introduction Change Blindness in Nonhuman Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Change Detection Comparing Monkey and Human Change Detection Comparing Pigeon, Monkey and Human Change Detection Mechanisms of Working Memory by Manipulating Change Decision Mechanisms in Change Detection References Change of Primary Caregiver Character Charles Darwin Charles R. Menzel Cross-References References Charles Robert Darwin Charles Darwin: Overview Early Life and Education (1809-1831) The Beagle (1831-1836) Life After the Beagle Voyage (1836-1837) Development of the Theory (1837-1859) After Origin (1860-1882) Publications by Charles Darwin Cross-References References Chasm Cheating Synonyms Definition Introduction Phylogeny Ontogeny Major Advances and Applications Mirror Neuron System Variables Associated with Cheating Cheaters Detection in Social Interaction Assessment of Cheating Academic Cheating Behavior Conclusions Cross-References References Chelonia Navigation Chemical Communication Chemical Cues Synonyms Definition Introduction Chemical Cues and Signals Signature Mixtures Conclusion Cross-References References Chemical Signals Synonyms Related Definition Taste and Smell Chemical Signals and Social Recognition Chemoreception and Sexual Signals Cross-References References Chemoreception Synonyms Introduction Chemoreceptor Variation External Cues Cross-References References Chemosensory Chemosensory Cues Chemotaxis Definition Introduction Chemotaxis in Prokaryotes Chemotaxis in Eukaryotes Conclusion Cross-References References Chicken-Like Bird Locomotion Chimpanzee Chimpanzee Between-Group Lethal Competition Chimpanzee Raiding Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence of Chimpanzee Intercommunity Killings Empirical Examinations of Anthropogenic and Adaptive Hypotheses Power Imbalances and Numerical Assessment Intercommunity Conflict and Fitness Outcomes Intergroup Killings in Chimpanzee and Human Societies Discussion Cross-References References Chimpanzee Sociality Chondrichthyes Communication Definition Introduction Visual Communication Agonistic Postures Reproductive Postures Patterns and Colors Light Emission Mechanoreception and Communication Acoustic Signals Laterosensory System Perception Chemical Communication Olfactory Signals Gustatory Signals Tactile Communication Electrical Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Chondrichthyes Diet Synonyms Introduction Filter Feeders Pelagic Feeders Benthic and Demersal Feeders Conclusion Cross-References References Chondrichthyes Locomotion Synonyms Definition Major Locomotor Modes Alternative Locomotive Strategies Locomotor Migrations Bioinnovation Conclusion Cross-References References Chondrichthyes Morphology Synonyms Definition Introduction Classification Selachians Sharks Batoids (Rays, Skates, Guitarfish, and Sawfish) Holocephalans (Chimaeras or Ratfish) General Features Distribution and Abundance Food Habits Sharks Rays Form and Function Equilibrium of Fishes in Water The Skin of Elasmobranchs Senses Reproductive Behavior Respiration Conclusion Cross-References References Chondrichthyes Navigation Synonyms Introduction Short-Range Navigation Vision Olfaction Long-Distance Navigation Electroreception Conclusion Cross-References References Chondrichthyes Sensory Systems Definition Introduction Chemoreception Olfactory System Gustation Photoreception Vision Pineal Complex Mechanoreception Lateral Line System Membranous Labyrinth Auditory System Electroreception Ampullary Organs Cross-References References Chorion Development Structure Function Cross-References References Chorus Synonyms Definition Introduction Biological Functions Benefits and Costs Conclusion Cross-References References Chris Evans Cross-References References Christine Ladd-Franklin Introduction Trials and Tribulations The Society of Experimentalists: Ladd-Franklin Versus Titchener Who Was Titchener? Women and the Society of Experimentalists Ladd-Franklin´s Accomplishments in Logic Ladd-Franklins Accomplishments in Vision and Color Vision Closing Remarks Cross-References References Chromatid Synonyms Definition Introduction Homologous Chromosomes vs. Sister Chromatids Chromatids Are Visible in Mitotic Phases Chromatids Play Essential Roles in DNA Repair Role of Chromatids in Genetic Diversity Chromatid Aberrations Indicate DNA Damage Conclusion Cross-References References Chromatin Chromosomal Aberration Chromosomal Abnormality Chromosomal Anomaly Chromosomal Recombination Chromosomal Translocation Chromosomes Synonyms Definition Introduction Essential Features of a Chromosome in Eukaryotic System Includes Origin of Replication, Centromere, and Telomere Organization of DNA into Chromosome Is Achieved in Multiple Levels of Condensations At Higher Condensation Levels, Chromosomes Can Be Distinctly Visualized Under Basic Light Microscopes Karyotype and Ideogram Aberrations in Chromosomes and Their Clinical Significance Conclusion Cross-References References Chunking Synonyms Definition Introduction Chunking Manipulations and Cognitive Advantages Chunking Demonstrations Across Species Sequence Chunking Spatial Chunking Auditory Chunking Motor Chunking Conclusion Cross-References References Cilia Synonyms Definition Introduction Classification Motile cilia Function of Motile Cilia Primary Cilia (Monocilia) Function of Primary Cilia Nodal Cilia Function of Nodal Cilia Structure of Cilia Ciliary Diseases Conclusion References Circadian Rhythm Circadian Rhythms Introduction Entrainment The Molecular Basis of the Circadian Clock The Structure of Circadian Systems Clock Inputs: Light and Food Circadian Flexibility Circadian Rhythms and Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Circannual Cycle Circulation Circulatory System Synonyms Introduction Circulatory Structures and Functions The Lymphatic System Circulation Unique Traits Conclusion Cross-References References Cistron Cladistic Analysis Cross-References References Cladogenesis Clambering Definition Introduction Locomotion in Treetops Clambering and Cognition Cross-References References Clark L. Hull Cross-References References Classical Conditioning Introduction Historical Background Major Concepts Experimental Preparations Key Phenomena Theoretical Developments A Functional Point of View Applications Outside of the Laboratory Current Status of the Study of Classical Conditioning Cross-References References Classification of Organisms Clavicle Synonyms Definition Introduction Anatomy Function Species or Sex Variation Development of the Clavicle Traumatic Injury to the Clavicle Conclusion References Clever Hans Definition Introduction Von Osten´s Training Method The Hans-Commission Oskar Pfungst´s Study on Hans Accomplishments Conclusion Cross-References References Clive Wynne Cross-References References Cloning Closest Living Relative Cloven-Hooved Cloven-Hooved Mammal Locomotion Clumping Clustering Clutch Definition Description Cross-References References Clutching CNVs Coalition Enforcement Synonyms Definition Introduction Coalition Enforcement Hypothesis: Morality and Violence Docility and Moral Viscosity Coalition Enforcement and Language Cultural Heritage: Extragenetic Information, Morality, and Sense of Guilt Conclusion Cross-References References Coalitional Mating Synonyms Introduction Examples Conclusion Cross-References References Coalitional Raiding in Chimpanzees Cocaktiel Locomotion Cockatoo Locomotion Code Coding Synonyms Definition Introduction Coding in Sensation and Perception Coding in Pavlovian and Instrumental Conditioning Coding in Short-Term and Long-Term Memory Coding in Retrospective and Prospective Memory Coding in Memory for Space, Time, and Number Coding in Sequential Learning and Serial Pattern Learning Coding in Animal Episodic Memory Conclusion Cross-References References Coding DNA Codon Definition Gene Sequences are Composed of Codons What Is a Codon? Advantages of a Three-Letter Codon Configuration Experimental Identification of Codons The Triplet Code Properties of Triplet Code Exceptions to the Code and Implications Mitochondrial Genes Nuclear Genes Nonstandard Amino Acids Codon Bias and Implications How Codons Actually Work: Meet the Anticodon Cross-References References Coefficient of Relatedness Synonyms Definition Kin Class Versus Degree of Relatedness Predicted Versus Actual Degree of Relatedness Measuring the Degree of Relatedness Application of the Degree of Relatedness Cross-References References Coevolution Definitions History Proposed Theories Predation Parasitism Mutualism Competition Cross-References References Cognition Synonyms Introduction What Is Cognition? Methodologies Perception Attention Memory Language Cross-References References Cognitive Bias Definition Introduction Potential Causes Limited Cognitive Resources Emotion and Motivation Social Influence Heuristics and Mental Shortcuts An Evolutionary Perspective Conclusions Cross-References References Cognitive Capacities Cognitive Control Cognitive Ecology Cognitive Empathy Cognitive Flow Synonyms Definitions of Flow Models of Flow Universality of Flow Antecedents and Consequences of Flow Directions for Future Research Cross-References References Cognitive Functions Cognitive Imitation Synonyms Definition Introduction Cognitive Imitation in Rhesus Monkeys Cognitive Versus Motor-Spatial Imitation Domain-Specificity in Imitation Learning Cross-References References Cognitive Impenetrability Definition Introduction Wired Cognition and Cognitive Impenetrability The Cognitive Penetrability Criterion Cross-References References Cognitive Map Tolman´s Cognitive Map Metric Cognitive Map Cognitive Map, Detours, and Displacements Cross-References References Cognitive Models Cognitive Processes Cognitive Processing Cognitive Revolution Cognitive Theories Cognitivism Behaviorism The Cognitive Revolution Cognitivism in the Study of Animal Minds Challenges to Cognitivism in the Study of Animal Minds Morgan´s Canon The Logical Problem Cross-References References Coitus Collaborative Hunting Collarbone Collateral Behavior Collection Colobine Colonial Nesting Cross-References References Color Change Types of Color Change Functions of Color Change Animal Coloration and Global Change Cross-References References Color Perception Columba livia Combination Combining Ability Common Ancestor Definition Introduction Miocene Epoch Early Hominins Australopithecus Afarensis The Genus Homo Homo Neanderthalensis (Homo sapiens Neanderthalensis) Denisovans ``Ghost´´ Hominids Interbreeding Summary References Common Descent Communal Behavior Definition Introduction Adaptive Value of Communal Behaviors Predation Risk Reduction Buffer Against Environmental Variation Increased Offspring Survival Communal Behavior and Kin Selection Communal and Cooperative Behaviors Communal Behavior in Entomology Communal Behavior in the Social Sciences Cross-References References Communal Song Communication Synonyms Definition The Role of Information in Communication Signals Versus Cues Signal Modalities and Types What Influences Signal Transmission? Multimodal Communication Signal Reliability and the Evolution of Signals Signal Design and the Evolution of Signals Functionally Referential Signals Intraspecific Communication Interspecific Communication Applied Communication Conclusions Cross-References References Communication Networks, Eavesdropping, and Audience Effects An Introduction to Communication Networks Eavesdropping Interceptive Eavesdropping Eavesdropping by Predators and Parasites The Influence of Interceptive Eavesdropping by Natural Enemies on Signaling Systems Signaling in a Modality Not Perceived by Potential Eavesdroppers Limiting Detectability of Signals by Eavesdroppers Detection of Eavesdroppers and Cessation of Calling Signaling at Safer Times or from Safer Places Shifting Receiver Preferences and Signal Characteristics Employing Social Behavior to Mitigate Risks of Eavesdropping Interceptive Eavesdropping on Predator-Alarm Calls Interceptive Eavesdropping to Locate Resources Social Eavesdropping Social Eavesdropping and Signaling Modalities Social Eavesdropping, Social Structure, and Ecology Audience Effects Examples of Audience Effects Conclusions Cross-References References Community Comorbidity Synonyms Definition Cause of Comorbidity Methods for Measurement of Comorbidity Consequences of Comorbidity Treatment References Companion Animals Comparative Cognition Background Areas of Cognition Fundamental Mechanisms Physical Cognition Social Cognition Hypotheses on Cognitive Evolution Physical Characteristics as Drivers for Cognitive Evolution Adaptive Intelligence Hypotheses Domain-General Versus Domain-Specific Intelligence Physical Proxies for Advanced Cognition Tools of Comparative Research Progression and Challenges The Stepwise Comparison Large-Scale Comparisons Possible Directions Emphasis on Baseline Criterions Multi-task Batteries The Multi-access Approach Holistic Approaches Specific Error Patterns Lowering Task Demands Behavioral Coding Alongside Task Performance Outlook Cross-References References Comparative Psychology Definitions Roles of Comparative Psychology Within Psychology Historical Origins and Background Nonbehaviorist Comparative Psychology Before the 1960s Practical Intelligence: Objects and Tool Use Object Permanence Object Individuation Convergent Evolution and the Challenge of Operationalization The Challenge of Operationalization Domestication, Captivity, and Development Ape in the House Studies Captivity, Behavior, and Cognition Enculturated Apes Experiments in the Wild: The Meanings of Animal Signals Intentional Gestures in Communication Comparative Psychology and Cognitive Science: Theory of Mind Nonverbal Thought and Implicit Knowledge Conclusion Cross-References References Comparator, The Definition Overview Comparator Examples Cross-References References Compass Orientation Cross-References References Competing Cues Competition Competitive Behavior Competitive Exclusion Definition Method Task Validity Use Beyond Laboratory Mice Cross-References References Complementary Genes Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Mate Selection Complementary Genes and Mate Selection in Humans Cross-References References Complementation Complex Arrangement Complex Group Complex System Compliance Compulsive Behavior Compunction Computational Biology Computer Interface Computer-Generated Environment Computerized Testing Paradigm in Primates Synonyms Personal Computers for Nonhuman Animals Psychological Well-Being The Rise of Comparative Cognition Summary Cross-References References Concealing Coloration Conceptual Set-Shifting Task (CCST) Conceptual-Driven Concordance Synonyms Definition Essentiality of Concordance Study Models for Studying Concordance A Simple Example of Concordance Study Analysis of the Calculation Applications Drawbacks Concluding Remarks Cross-References References Condition of Birth Conditioned Approach Conditioned Defensive Burying Paradigm Conditioned Inhibition Synonyms Definition Introduction Pavlov´s Procedure for CI Necessary Conditions for CI Effects in Behavior of a Conditioned Inhibitor Theories of Conditioned Inhibition Summary Cross-References References Conditioned Inhibitor Conditioned Place Preference General Introduction Apparatus, Design, and Methodological Considerations Apparatus Design Other Methodological Considerations Application of CPP to Study Natural Rewards Application of CPP to Study Drug Effects Psychostimulants Opiates Ethanol Nicotine Cannabinoids MDMA Application of CPP as a Drug Screening Tool Neurobiological Mechanisms of CPP Conclusions Cross-References References Conditioned Responding Conditioning Configurational Processes Conflicts Confusion Effect Definition What Is the ``Confusion´´ in the Confusion Effect? The Confusion Effect Contributes to ``Safety in Numbers´´ Examples of the Confusion Effect Dazzle Camouflage Enhancing the Confusion Effect Dissimilarity Is Weakening the Confusion Effect Conclusion Cross-References References Congruence Conjugation Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence of Bacterial Conjugation F-Conjugation Process Pull In and Push Out: Mechanisms of Horizontal Gene Transfer in Bacteria Pull DNA in During Natural Transformation Push Out Mechanism for Transfer of DNA During Bacterial Conjugation Potential Applications Conclusion Cross-References References Connectionist Network Consciousness Animals and the Problem of Other Minds Lloyd Morgan´s Canon and Parsimony More on Some Hard Cases and Brain Structure Animal Consciousness and Higher-Order Thought Theory Cross-References References Conservation Synonyms Definition Introduction Comparative Data Summary Cross-References References Consistent Behavioral Variation Consolation Consort Synonyms Definition The Function, Forms and Frailties of Consort Behavior Cross-References References Conspecifics Definition Introduction Communication Learning from Conspecifics Conclusion Cross-References References Constancy Constitution Constraints on Learning Definition Background Turning to Evolution Preparedness Specific-Process Approaches Integrative Approaches Summary: Changing Perspectives on Constraints Cross-References References Consumer Consumption Contact Calls Definition Introduction Types of Information Conclusions Cross-References References Contact Comfort Definition Introduction Contact Comfort as a Safety Net From Harlow´s Contact Comfort, to Bowlby´s Attachment Theory Reducing Pain and Stress in Human Newborns Conclusions Cross-References References Contagion References Contagious Yawning Synonyms Definition Introduction Behavioral Framework Yawning in the Animal Kingdom Contagious Yawning The Neural Basis for Contagious Yawning An Error to Avoid Conclusion Cross-References References Further Reading Context-Dependent Strategies Contextual-Driven Contingency Definition Main Text Cross-References References Continuous Perception-Action Cycle Continuous Signal Contrafreeloading Introduction Factors Affecting the Strength of CFL Training Deprivation Level Effort Required Rearing Conditions Stimulus Change Environmental Uncertainty Explanations for CFL Training Effects The Response Used to Obtain the Earned-Food is Self-Reinforcing Competence Theory Information-Primacy Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Contrapreparedness Introduction Stimulus Salience Species-Specific Defense Reactions Animal Misbehavior Conclusion References Contrast Effects Synonyms Definition Introduction Explaining Contrast Demonstrating Contrast Ceiling Effects Variables Affecting Contrast Conclusion Cross-References References Contrition Control Convergent Evolution Definition Introduction Functional Convergent Evolution Convergent Evolution at the Structural and Functional Level Behavioral Convergent Evolution Cognitive Convergent Evolution Conclusion Cross-References References Coolidge Effect, The Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Cooperation Related Terms Definition Introduction Four Approaches to Studying Cooperation Key Hypotheses for the Evolution of Cooperative Behavior Mutualism Kin Selection Group Selection Reciprocity Mechanisms and Related Behaviors Prosocial Behavior Empathy Inequity and Cooperation Hormonal Mechanisms of Cooperation Measuring Cooperation Field Studies Experimental Paradigms Future Research Cross-References References Cooperative Breeding Definition Synonyms and Related Notions General Description Evolutionary Pathways Cooperative Breeding and Its Consequences Conclusion Cross-References References Cooperative Hunting Synonyms Definition Cooperative Hunting Chimpanzees African Painted Dogs Lions Harris Hawks Conclusion Cross-References References Cooperative Mating Coordinated Hunting Coordinated Joint Engagement Coordinated Person-Object Orientation Coordinated Singing Coordination Games Assurance Game (Stag-Hunt) Hawk-Dove (Chicken) Game and Snowdrift Game Conclusion Cross-References References Coping Mechanism Coping Style Synonyms Definition Introduction History Assessment and Utilization Current Classifications Conclusion Cross-References References Copulation Copy Number Polymorphisms Copy Number Variant (CNV) Synonyms Definition Introduction Mechanism of CNV Formation Role of Copy Number Variants in Evolution Analysis of Copy Number Variant CNVs and Genomic Disorders CNV Map of Human Genome Conclusion Cross-References References Copy Number Variation Analysis Copy Number Variation Detection Copy Number Variations Copying Synonyms Introduction Imitation Bodily Imitation Program-Level and Contextual Imitation Production Imitation Vocal Imitation Automatic Imitation Over-Imitation Emulation End-State Emulation Object-Movement Re-enactment Affordance Learning Conclusion Cross-References References Core Area Definition Introduction Core Areas and Home Ranges Identifying the Core Area Beyond the Core Area vs. Periphery Dichotomy Conclusion Cross-References References Core Number System Core/Heart of the Cell Correlation Synonyms Definition Introduction Correlation Estimation Scatter Diagram Pearson´s Correlation Coefficient Spearman´s Rank Correlation Coefficient Kendall Rank Correlation Coefficient Mantel Test Coefficient Phi Correlation Coefficient Significance of a Correlation Coefficient Conclusion References Corridor Illusion Synonyms Definition Introduction Factors in Corridor Illusions Conclusion Cross-References References Cortex Man Cortical Somatotopic Map Corticalization Corticosterone Synonyms Alternative Words Definition Introduction Discovery Corticosterone Biosynthesis Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis Interrelationship between Male Gonadal and Adrenocortical System Functional Defects of Corticosterone Secretion Prognostic Value of Corticosterone Cross-References References Corvids Synonyms Definition Introduction Foraging Ecology and Physical Cognition Social Life Bird Brains? Conclusion Cross-References References Costly Signaling Costs of Group Living Introduction Within-Group Competition Increase of Parasite Anti-parasite Benefits of Group Living Conclusion Cross-References References Counterconditioning Spontaneous Recovery in Counterconditioning Counterconditioning in Psychotherapy Systematic Desensitization Conclusion Cross-References References Countershading Synonyms Definition Introduction The History of Countershading The Mechanism by Which Countershading Can Enhance Camouflage Evidence for the Concealing Effect of Countershading Countershading in Aquatic Environments Conclusion Cross-References References Countersinging Synonyms Definition Introduction Choruses and Duets Song Alternating and Overlapping Song-Type Matching The Threat Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Counting What Is Counting? What Does Not Count as Counting? Controversial History of Counting Research with Animals Studies of Counting by Animals Conclusions and Future Directions Cross-References References Courtship Behaviors Courtship Rituals Courtship and Mate Choice Evolution and Importance of Courtship Male and Female Roles in Courtship Physiological Components of Courtship Behavioral Components of Courtship Dishonesty in Courtship Rituals Summary Cross-References References Covert Attention Covert Copulator Cow Cow Locomotion Cranial Base Synonyms Introduction Neuro-cranium Splanchno-cranium Norma Basalis Norma Internalis Applied Anatomy Cross-References References Creatinine Introduction Source Creatinine Clearance Clinical Significance Methods of Creatinine Estimation Cross-References References Crèching Cre-loxP Crepuscular Synonyms Definition Crepuscular Behavior Patterns Prevalence of Crepuscular Activity Patterns in the Animal Kingdom Driving Forces Behind Crepuscular Diel Patterns Adaptations for Crepuscular Behavior General Conclusion Cross-References References Crespi Effects Crime CRISPR Critical Period for Song Learning Synonyms Definition Introduction The Study of Bird Song Learning The Phases of Song Learning The Auditory Template Theory Sensory Acquisition Phase (or Critical Period of Song Learning) Sensorimotor Phase Subsongs Plastic Songs Crystallized Songs The Role of Auditory Feedback The Timing and Length of the Critical Period Close-Ended and Open-Ended Learners What Is Learned During the Critical Period? Memory-Based Learning Social Influences on Song Acquisition Tape Tutoring Versus Live Tutoring Selective Learning Conclusion Cross-References References Critical Periods Synonyms Definition Introduction Behavioral Imprinting Critical Period in Vocalization Songbird Learning Biological Mechanism of Critical Period: Plasticity in Visual Development Discussion Cross-References References Crocodile Crocodile Alligator Vision Hearing Crocodile Locomotion Crocodilia Communication Crocodilia Diet Synonyms Introduction Food and Feeding Habits Conclusion Cross-References References Crocodilia Locomotion Synonyms Definition Terrestrial Locomotion Swimming and Diving The ``Death Roll´´ Conclusion Cross-References Literature Cited Crocodilia Morphology Synonyms Definition Introduction General Appearance Eyes and Ears Skin Osteology Skull and Mandibles Dentition Postcranial Skeleton Osteoderms Musculature Digestive System Respiratory and Cardiovascular Systems Urogenital System Brain and Nervous System Cross-References References Crocodilian Communication Crocodilian Sensory Systems Synonyms Definition Introduction Review of Crocodilians Sensory Neurobiology Intro Vision Hearing Vestibular Mechanosensation Osmosensation Chemosensation Electroreception and Magnetoreception Conclusion Cross-References References Crocodylia Crocodylia Cognition Introduction Learning Physical Cognition Object Manipulation The Potential for Tool Use Spatial Cognition Play Spontaneous Olfactory Discrimination Social Cognition Cognitive Capacities Inferred by Observation Hunting and Feeding Nesting Conclusions Cross-References References Crocodylia Communication Synonyms Introduction Body Postures Tactile Communication Nonvocal Acoustic Signals Vocal Communication ``Prehatching´´ and ``Posthatching´´ Calls ``Contact´´ Calls ``Distress´´ Calls Hissing Bellowing and Roaring Other Vocalizations Subaudible Vibrations (SAV) Olfactory Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Crocodylia Locomotion Crocodylia Morphology Crocodylian Communication Cross-cultural Cross-Fostering Studies Introduction Cross-Fostering and Animal Husbandry Ethology Epigenetics Apes Cross-Fostered by Humans Cross-References References Cross-modal Integration Cross-Modal Transfer Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Crossover Synonyms Definition Crossing Over Cross-References References Crustacean Exploration Crustaceans Crypsis Cryptic Coloration Synonyms Definition Introduction Mechanisms Cryptic Coloration in Art and Technology Conclusion Cross-References References Cryptic Female Choice Cryptic Male Choice Cryptic Mate Choice Synonyms Definition Sexual Selection During and After Copulation Mechanisms of CFC Mate Choice: Looking into the Future Cross-References References Cuckold Cuckolded Cuckoldry Synonyms Definition Introduction The Problem of Cuckoldry Solutions to the Problem of Cuckoldry Conclusion Cross-References References Cuckoldry Risk Hypothesis Cuckoo Brood Parasitism Synonyms Definition Introduction Strategies for Brood Parasitism Egg Mimicry Distraction Rapid Egg Laying and Development Destruction of Host Nests Offspring Mimicry Costs of Parasitism Parasitized Host Mitigation Evolution of Brood Parasitism Conclusion Cross-References References Cuckquean Cues Culpability Cultural Transmission Introduction The Importance of Studying Cultural Transmission Key Debates About Cultural Transmission What Social Learning Mechanisms Are Required for Cultural Transmission Are Nonhuman Animals Capable of Cumulative Culture? What Are the Other Key Factors Involved in Cultural Transmission? What Is Transmitted During Cultural Transmission? Pathways for Cultural Transmission Social Learning Strategies Thought to Influence Cultural Transmission Transmission Pathways Through Populations Summary Cross-References References Culture Introduction What Do Animal Cultures Look Like? Core Cultural Concepts Why Is Culture Useful? Social Learning Processes Social Learning Biases Cumulative Culture Summary Cross-References References Cumulative Culture Introduction The Extent and Limits of Cumulative Culture in Chimpanzees Cumulative Culture: Other Species What Factors Are Limiting the Evolution of Cumulative Culture in Animals? The Slow Emergence of Cumulative Culture in the Human Animal Cross-References References Curiosity Cross-References References Cutis and Its Derivative Cylinder Task Synonyms Definition Introduction Cylinder Task Procedure Cognitive Capacities for Inhibitory Control Behavioral Results Conclusion Cross-References References D Darwinian Fitness Dassie Data-Driven Processing Dauer Daughter Chromosomes Daughter Guarding Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Daughter-Guarding Hypothesis David Attenborough Early Life Early Career Style and Nuances Breaking New Ground Awards and Fame Views and Activism On Animal Behavior Books by Sir David Cross-References References David Buss Evolved Mate Preferences Tactics of Mate Competition: Mate Attraction and Competitor Derogation Tactics of Mate Retention Mate Poaching Tactics The Emotion of Jealousy Strategic Interference Theory Error Management Theory The Evolution of Aggression and Murder Authored Books Edited Volumes Teaching and Mentoring PhDs in Evolutionary Psychology Cross-References References David Hume About His Life Hume´s Treatise of Human Nature Cross-References References David Premack Introduction Background and Contributions Premack Principle Theory of Mind Effects of Enculturation Human and Animal Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References David Washburn Personal and Professional History Significant Contributions Cross-References References Dawn Singing Dawn Solo/Chorus Synonyms Definition Introduction Research on the Dawn Chorus Environmental Factors Physiological Factors Functions Heterospecific Interactions Chorusing in Other Groups Conclusion Cross-References References Dawn Song Day/Night Cycle Synonyms Definition The ``Rest´´ Cycle The ``Awake´´ Cycle The Evolutionary Loss of Regular Day/Night Cycles Light Pollution and Its Effects on the Day/Night Cycle Cross-References References Day-Active Day-Night Activity Dead Reckoning Cross-References References Dear Enemy Effect Synonyms Definition Introduction Adaptive Significance Neighbor Recognition Conclusions Cross-References References Dear Enemy Phenomenon Death Introduction Animacy Detection Malfunction Thanatological Interactions Grief-Like Responses Notable Empirical Research Conclusion Cross-References References Decaying Deceit Deception Deciduous Teeth Decision-Making Definition Introduction Animal Decision-Making Collective Decision-Making Consensus Decision Conclusion Cross-References References Declarative Memory Synonyms Definition Introduction Systems of Memory Declarative Versus Non-Declarative Memory Two Kinds of Declarative Memory: Semantic and Episodic Memory Cross-References References Deep Understanding Defended Food/Encapsulated Food Processing Defense Polygyny Defensive Burying Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Deferred Imitation References Degenerated Organ Degree of Relatedness Deimatic Behavior Delay Activity Delay Cells Delay Neurons Delay Neurons: Comparative Overview Synonyms Definition Delay Neurons in Primates Delay Neurons in Birds Delay Neurons in Rodents Delay Neurons in Humans Contemporary Issues in Delay Neuron Research Summary Cross-References References Delay of Reinforcement Definition Parameters of Delayed Reinforcement Efficacy of Delayed Reinforcement Conclusion Cross-References References Delayed Gratification Cross-References References Delayed Implantation Delayed Matching-to-Sample Delayed Match-to-Sample Synonyms Procedure Variations Cross-References References Delboeuf Concentric Circles Delboeuf Illusion Synonyms Definition The Delboeuf Illusion Comparative Assessments of the Delboeuf Illusion Summary Cross-References References Deliberate Self-Harm Dendrites Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Dendrohyrax arboreus Dendrohyrax dorsalis Dendrohyrax validus Dendrons Dental Formula Synonyms Definition References Dentate Fascia Dentate Gyrus Synonyms Definition Introduction Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology Comparative Biology Conclusion Cross-References References Dentition Dependence Depressive Disorder Deprivation of Liberty Depth Cues Depth Illusion Depth Information Depth Perception Synonyms Oculomotor Cues Accommodation Vergence Visual Cues Binocular Cues Monocular Information Cues Dynamical Cues Motion Parallax Expansion and Contraction Accretion and Deletion Static Cues Occlusion Relative Size Familiar Size Distance from Horizon Line Shadows, Shading, and Lightning Atmospheric Perspective Linear Perspective Texture Gradient The Gibsonian Approach to Depth Perception Conclusion Cross-References References Derma and Its Derivative Desensitization Desire Deterioration Detour Task Detour-Reaching Task Deutero-learning Developed Embryo Developing Infant Development Developmental Arrest Synonyms Definition Introduction Embryonic Diapause in Mammals Postimplantation Diapause in Mammals Developmental Arrest in Nonmammalian Vertebrates Developmental Arrest in Invertebrates Conclusion Cross-References References Diallel Design Synonyms Definition Background Description Types of Diallel Mating Design Methodologies for Studying DD Diallel Design Analysis Application Drawbacks Concluding Remarks Cross-References References Dian Fossey Introduction Early Years Research Contributions Conservation Conclusion Cross-References References Diaspora Diathesis Stress Definition Stress Diathesis Diathesis Stress Models Dichotomous Diathesis Model Quasi-Continuous Diathesis Model Threshold Model Risk-Resilience Continuum Model Schizophrenia: A Neural Diathesis-Stress Model Behavioral Response Biological Response Conclusion Cross-References References Dichotomous Stress Synonyms Definition Introduction Obesity and the Stress Dichotomy Acute Stress Responses Versus Chronic Stress Response Conclusion Cross-References References Dictator Game Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Dictator´s Game Diel Activity Difference Difference of Form Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior Differential Splicing Differentiation of a Response Diffusion Synonyms Definition Explanation of Diffusion in the Context of Different Disciplines Aim of Diffusion Factors that Affect Diffusion Temperature Area of Interaction Particle Size Role of Diffusion Conclusion Cross-References References Diffusion Studies Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Diffusion and Environmental Conditions Social Diffusion and Individual Features Social Diffusion and Social Characteristics Other Fields of Diffusion Studies Cross-References References Digestive System Human digestive system Alimentary Canal Organs Accessory Organs Digestive System Process Digestion of Food Functions of Digestive System Crosstalk Between Endocrine and Digestive System Crosstalk Between Endocrine and Digestive System Digestive System Disorders Cross-References References Digit Spans Diminution Dioecy Diploid Definition Introduction Chromosomal Aberrations Due to Change in Ploidy Level Cross-References References Direct and Indirect Fitness Direct Perception Directed Movement Directed Versus Averted Gaze Definition Introduction What Constitutes Directed and Averted Gaze? Why Are Individuals Sensitive to Gaze Cues? Gaze Cues as a Paradigm for Testing Cognition What Gaze Cues Are Most Salient? Cross-References References Directional Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Methods to Assess Directional Selection Kin Selection Cross-References References Disassortative Mating Discourse Discovery Discrete Trial Fixed-Interval Schedule Discrete Trials Introduction On the Mechanics of Discrete Trials Discrete Trials Data Analysis Conclusion Cross-References References Discreteness Discriminated Avoidance Discrimination Learning Discrimination of Emotion Synonyms Definition Adaptive Value Modalities Experimental Tests of Emotion Discrimination Hidden Object Paradigm Social Referencing Matching Experiments Neural Correlates of Discrimination Behavioral Differentiation Conclusions Cross-References References Discriminative Parental Solicitude Synonyms Definition Introduction Parent-Offspring Conflict Theory Intrabrood and Interbrood Conflict Examples Offspring Reproductive Value Environmental Condition Reproductive Value and Environmental Condition Weaning Conflict Conclusion Cross-References References Discussions Disease-Causing Agent Disgust Introduction Affective Expression of Disgust Brain Mechanisms of Disgust Animal Models of Disgust in Clinical Settings Conclusion Cross-References References Dishabituation Definition Introduction Theoretical Approaches Conclusion Cross-References References Dishonesty Dispassionate Dispersal Dispersal Ability Synonyms Definition Introduction Locomotive Capabilities Habitat Connectivity and Quality Conclusion Cross-References References Dispersal Mechanisms Dispersal Patterns Definition Introduction Conditional and Unconditional Dispersal Sex-Biased Dispersal Patterns Change to Patterns over Time Current Methods Conclusion Cross-References References Displacement Display Displays Definition Introduction Antagonistic Mating Parent-Offspring Interactions Influences on Display Behavior Evolution of Displays Conclusion Cross-References References Disposition Disruptive Disruptive Coloration Definition Introduction Mechanisms Technological Applications Conclusion Cross-References References Distance Effect Distraction Display Distributive Coding Diurnality Synonyms Definition Introduction Physiological Mechanisms Behind Diurnality Evolutionary Aspects of Diurnality Flexibility of Activity Patterns Final Remarks Cross-References References Divergent Evolution Definition Introduction Forces Behind Divergent Evolution Species Interactions Environmental Differences Sexual Selection Natural Selection Evidence of Divergent Evolution Darwin´s Finches and Adaptive Radiation Forelimbs of Mammals and Homologous Structures Other Common Examples of Divergent Evolution Speciation Allopatric Speciation Peripatric Speciation Sympatric Speciation Parapatric Speciation Conclusion Cross-References References Divided Attention Synonyms Definition Introduction Methods of Studying Divided Attention in Nonhuman Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Division 6, American Psychological Association (APA) Synonyms Cross-References References Division of Labor Definition Introduction Reproductive and Nonreproductive Division of Labor Flexibility in Division of Labor Mechanistic Basis of Division of Labor Cross-References References Division of Physiological and Comparative Psychology Dizygotic (DZ) Synonyms Definition Introduction History and Background of Twin Studies Importance of DZ Study Epidemiology and Prevalence Factors Affecting Twinning Rate Hypotheses Mechanism Genetic Variants and DZ Sex of Twins Chimerism Conclusion Cross-References References DNA Definition Introduction DNA Structure DNA Forms DNA Organization Conclusion Cross-References References DNA Array DNA Chip DNA Marker Synonyms Definition Introduction Types Examples of Application Conclusion Cross-References References DNA Methylation DNA Pooling Definition Introduction Application Conclusion Cross-References References DNA Repair Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References DNA Transfer DNA Typing Dog Behavior Dog Cognition Dog Communication Dog Gaits Dog Intelligence Dog Locomotion Dog Racing Dolphin Domain Specificity Introduction Core Cognitive Domains Neural Specificity Domain Specificity and Learning Conclusion Cross-References References Domestic Pig Domestic Swine Domestication Domestication Hypothesis Definition Introduction Domestication Alternative Hypotheses Conclusion Cross-References References Domestication Syndrome Cross-References References Dominance Synonyms Definition Introduction Function Measurement Conclusion Cross-References References Dominance Hierarchy Synonyms Definition Introduction Function Hierarchy Properties Types of Hierarchy How Dominance Hierarchy Is Set Up and Maintained Conclusion Cross-References References Dominance Rank Dominant Dominant/Subordinate Relationship Donald Griffin Introduction Early Life Education and Early Career Accomplishments Later Career References Donald O. Hebb Introduction: The Education of Donald Olding Hebb Hebb´s Research Interests and Major Contributions to the Study of Animal Cognition and Behavior Human Neuropsychology and Intelligence Primate Research The Organization of Behavior Hebb´s Students and Their Research Hebb´s Writings After The Organization of Behavior The Long-Lasting Influence of Hebb´s Ideas References Donkey Dopamine Receptor Synonyms Definition Introduction The Dopamine System Subtypes D1-like Family (Activation) D1 D5 D2-like Family (Reduction) D2 D3 D4 Links to Pathology Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder Substance Abuse and Addiction Schizophrenia Parkinson´s Disease Dopamine and the Animal Kingdom Cross-References References Dormant Dorothy Cheney Introduction Background Contributions to Social Behavior and Social Cognition Cross-References References Dorothy Fragaszy Cross-References References Dorsal Pathway Synonyms Definition Structural Organization of Visual System Visual Processing from Retina to Visual Cortex Cortical Mechanisms for Vision The Dual-Visual Systems Hypothesis Processing Along the Dorsal Pathway The Dual-Streams Approach in Other Sensory Systems Cross-References References Dorsal Pigmentary Darkening Dorsal Stream Dorsolateral Striatum Synonyms Introduction Habitual Behavior Motor Response Corticostriatal Circuitry Dopamine Cross-References References Dorsomedial Area Synonyms Definition Introduction Mapping the Visual Cortex The Dorsomedial Visual Cortex in New World Monkeys Old World Monkeys Humans A Common Organization for All Primates? Functions Cross-References References Dorsomedial Neostriatum Dorsomedial Striate Nucleus DRD Drive State Synonyms Cross-References References Drug Withdrawal Drug Withdrawal Syndrome Dual Sexuality Duality Dual-Store Model Definition Introduction Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Evidence of a Dual-Store Model Case Study of ``H.M.´´ Baddeley´s Model of Working Memory Separation of Long-Term Memory Encoding Specificity Levels of Processing Effect Conclusion References Duane Rumbaugh Personal and Professional History Significant Contributions Cross-References References Ducks Dugong Dugong Diet Dugong Movement Duplicating Duplication Duty Factor Dynamic Systems Theory Definition Introduction A Brief History Tenets of the Dynamic Systems Theory Multilevels and Multicausality in the Study of Change Self-Organization, Emergence of New Forms, and Nonlinearity Attractor as a Metaphor for States and Transitions Embedded Multiple Timescales and Developmental Trajectories Conclusion Cross References References E E.O. Wilson References Early Learning Earth Pig Ebbinghaus About His Life About His Work Cross-References References Ebbinghaus Illusion Synonyms Definition The Ebbinghaus Illusion Ebbinghaus Illusion Studies with Humans Comparative Ebbinghaus Illusion Studies Summary Cross-References References Ebbinghaus-Titchener Illusion Ecdysis Echidna Echolocation Synonyms Introduction Signal Production Signal Types Clicks Tonal Signals Frequency Patterns of Pulse Production Pulse Production and Echo Reception Advantages and Disadvantages of Echolocation Evolution of Echolocation Conclusion Cross-References References Eclosion Synonyms Definition Introduction Parent Effects on Hatchlings´ Behavior Embryonic Experience, Hatchlings Behavior and Cognition Is Eclosion a Cognitive Disruption? Cross-References References Ecological Index Ecological Psychology Ecological Stimuli Ecology Definition Introduction The Four Questions of Tinbergen and Ecology Ecology and Function Ecology and Evolved Mechanisms Ecophysiology of Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Ectopic Nipple Ectostriatum Edward B. Titchener Introduction Early Years and Education Structuralism System of Psychology and Laboratory Science Titchener´s Ties to Comparative Psychology Adjustment to Life in America References Edward C. Tolman Early Years and Education Research Career at Berkeley and the Development of Purposive Behaviorism Social Issues and Social Activism Cross-References References Edward L. Thorndike Edward Lee Thorndike Edward Thorndike Synonyms Introduction Initial Animal Research Puzzle Box Experiments Other Animal Studies Connectionism Applications to Education Revisions to Connectionism Conclusion Cross-References References EEG Synonyms Definition What is Registered by the EEG Test? Advantages and Disadvantages of the EEG Test Most Common Uses Cross-References References Effect Size Definition Introduction Effect Size Estimates Difference Between Groups Continuous Data Dichotomous Variables Association Measures Reporting and Interpreting ES Cross-References References Egalitarianism Definition Tolerance and Egalitarianism in Nonhuman Primate Societies Egalitarianism in Human Societies Discussion Cross-References References Egg Brooding Egg Deposition Egg Rejection Egg Release Eggs Egocentric Frame Synonyms References Egotistical Attributions Ejaculate Synonyms Definition Introduction Sperm Production Sperm Morphology Accessory Reproductive Glands Sperm Competition Ejaculate Allocation Conclusion Cross-References References Electric Organ Discharge Electroencephalogram Electroencephalography Electrogenic Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Fields Synonyms Alternative Words Definition Introduction History Maxwell´s Equations EM Field in Material Media Uniform Plane Waves Plane Waves in a Lossless Medium Plane Waves in a Lossy Medium Plane Waves in a Good Conductor Energy and Power in em Field Application: Wearable Antenna Application: Nanocomposites for Shielding Cross-References References Electromagnetic Spectrum Definition Introduction Biological Examples Humans: Visible Spectrum and Color Birds: Ultraviolet Vision Bats and Snakes: Infrared Detection Cross-References References Electromechanical Electrophoresis Definition Introduction Electrophoresis of Proteins Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate-Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis Native PAGE Electrophoresis of Nucleic Acids Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis Cross-Reference References Electroreception Electroreceptor Electroreceptors Synonyms Introduction Prevalence Structure Function Tuberous Electroreceptors Cross-References References Elektrokardiography (EKG)/Electrocardiography (ECG) Historical Perspectives Brief Overview of Heart Anatomy Path of Blood Flow Through Heart and Role of Pressure The Electrical Activity of the Heart Sinoatrial (SA) Node Atrioventicular (AV) Node His-Purkinje Network and Ventricular Muscle The Electrocardiogram Diagnostic Value of the ECG Cross-References References Elemental and Configural Perception Elephant Communication Elephant Life History Synonyms Introduction Reproduction Life Span and Mortality Social Structure and Cognition Cross-References References Elephant Locomotion Elephant Seals Synonyms Introduction Description Habitat and Locations Diet Threats and Predators Physiology Reproduction Conservation Status Cross-References References Elephants Eliciting Stimulus Elisabetta Visalberghi Introduction Overview of Dr. Visalberghi´s Academic Career and Major Contributions Conclusion Cross-References References em Embodied Cognition Synonyms Introduction Characteristics of Embodied Cognition Environment Situatedness and Embodiment Feedback Sense-Act Mechanisms Scaffolding and Control The Extended Mind Conclusion Cross-References References Embodied Perception Synonyms Introduction Against Representational Theories of Perception Evidence for Embodied Perception Integrating Representational and Nonrepresentational Theories of Perception Cross-References References Embryo Synonyms Definition Introduction Embryogenesis Terminology for Embryo on the Basis of Appearance of Somites Stages of Human Embryonic Development Conclusion Cross-References References Embryonic Diapause Embryonic Quiescence Emotion Detection Emotion Recognition Emotional Arousal Emotional Contagion Rapid and Spontaneous Mimicry Yawn Contagion Consolation Cross-References References Empathy Introduction and Definition Empathy and Affective States Experimental Considerations Why Empathy Is Adaptive Empathy and Altruism: The Camaraderie Effect Ethical Implications of Empathy References Emulation Definition Introduction Emulation and Culture Testing for Emulation Cross-References References Enactive Perception Encapsulated Nerve-Cell Bodies Encephalization Synonyms Definition Introduction Understanding Encephalization Through Human Fossils Encephalization and Brain Size EQ or Brain Size: Indicator of Intelligence Encephalization and Metabolic Disorders Cross-Reference References Encode Encoding Neural Encoding Encoding Effects Encoding Specificity Levels of Processing Effect Chunking Conclusion References Endel Tulving Biographical Details Brief Overview of Work Episodic Memory Encoding Specificity Amnesia and Autonoetic Consciousness Cross-References References Endemism Other Terms Cross-References References Endocrine System Definition Introduction History: A Brief Chronological Description of the Progress Made in Endocrinology Evolutionary and Developmental Basis Classification of Endocrine Glands Endocrine Glands: Brief Anatomy and Hormone-Related Functions Primary Endocrine Organs Hypothalamus Structure Function Pituitary Gland Structure Function Pineal Gland Structure Function Thyroid Gland Structure Function Parathyroid Structure Function Adrenal Gland Structure Functions Cortical Hormones Gonadotrophins Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids Medullary Hormones Ovary Structure Function Testes Structure Function Pancreas (Islet Cells) Structure Function Organs/Tissue Components with Secondary Endocrine Function Placenta Structure Functions Thymus Structure Function Adipose Tissue Skin Skeleton Heart Gastrointestinal Tract Liver Kidneys Hormones Types and Structure Mechanisms of Action Hormone Secretion, Transport, and Degradation Crossing Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) Endocrine System: Physiological Regulations Central Endocrine Axes and Hormonal Homeostasis Paracrine and Autocrine Regulation Circadian Control of Endocrine Functions Endocrine-Nervous-Immune Cross-Regulation Effects of Aging on Endocrine System Endocrine Disorders Commonly Used Investigations Common Therapeutic Approaches Cross-References References Endogenous Attention Endogenous Oscillations Definition Introduction Molecular Mechanism Effect on Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Endogenous Retroviruses Endoparasite Definition Introduction Endoparasite References Endophenotype Synonyms Definition General Features of Endophenotype Endophenotypes of Some Common Medical Disorder Conclusions Cross-References References Endoskeleton Endotherms Energy Enlightenment Entopallium Synonyms Introduction Anatomy of Entopallium Functions of Entopallium: Lesion Studies Functions of Entopallium: Electrophysiological Studies Conclusion Cross-References References Entorhinal Cortex Synonyms Definition Current Knowledge Brief Overview Structure Theories of Function Summary and Future Directions Cross-References References Environment Environmental Effect Environmental Index Environmental Influences Synonyms Definition Environmental Influences During Embryo Development Environmental Pollution Influence on Humans and Other Living Organisms Behavior and Environmental Influences Environmental Influence on Animals Environmental Influences and Human Diseases Conclusion Cross-References References Environment-Organism Systems Envy Epigenesis Synonyms Definition DNA Methylation Important Roles of DNA Methylation Histone Modifications Noncoding RNAs Methods to Determine Methylation Status of the Genome Epigenetic Reprogramming During Embryo Development Reprogramming of Somatic Cell Nucleus Conclusion Cross-References References Epigenetic Modification Epigenetics Epinephrine Episodic Memory Introduction Episodic-Like Memory in Animals Studies Using the What-Where-When Criterion What-Where-When (In Terms of How Long Ago) What-Where-Temporal Order (Relative Timing) What-Where-Which Other Ways to Investigate Episodic Cognition Unexpected Question Source Memory Episodic Future Thinking Conclusion Cross-References References Epistasis Synonyms Definition What is Epistasis? Introduction How to Detect Epistasis? How to Interpret the Punnet Square? Distinguishing Linkage and Epistasis Dominant Epistasis Recessive Epistasis Duplicate Recessive Epistasis Duplicate Dominant Epistasis Dominant Gene Interaction Dominant Suppression Epistasis in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Epistatic Interaction Equal Environments Assumption Synonyms Definition Background Description Methodologies for Analyzing EEA Application Drawbacks Concluding Remarks Cross-References References Equality Equational Division Equatorial Equestrianism Equids Equine Cognition Synonyms Introduction The Zebras Social Organization Social Cognition Spatial Cognition and Movement Decisions The Donkeys Social Organization Social Cognition Spatial Cognition Object Discrimination The Horses Social Organization Social Cognition Humans: Part of the Horses´ (Social) Environment Spatial Cognition and Movement Decisions Object Discrimination, Categorization, and Generalization Social Learning Effects on the Performance in Cognition Tasks Environmental Factors: Housing and Management Conditions Individual Factors: Prior Experience and Temperament Individual Factors: Age, Breed, and Sex Social Factors: Social Rank and Affiliation Conclusion Cross-References References Equine Communication Synonyms Definition Introduction Visual Communication Auditory Communication Chemical Communication Tactile Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Equine Diet Synonyms Definition Introduction Roughage Feeds: Parts of a Balanced Diet Supplements Water Conclusion Cross-References References Equine Gaits Equine Locomotion Synonyms Definition Gait Patterns Limb Loading Kinematics Energetics Jumping Bioinspired Robotics Conclusion Cross-References References Equine Sensory Systems Synonyms Definition Introduction Visual Perception Auditory Perception Olfactory Perception Gustation Tactile Perception Perceptual System Asymmetry Individual Variations and Factors of Influence Cross-References References Equity Erasmus Darwin References Error Rate Definition Introduction Error Rate as a Performance Criterion Error Rate Within Null Hypothesis Testing References Escape Behavior Escape Motion Escape Response Synonyms Definition Introduction As Distinct from Avoidance Absence of Escape Behavior and Learned Helplessness Marginal Cases Modifications Conclusion Cross-References References Essentialism What Is Psychological Essentialism? The Scope of Psychological Essentialism Signatures of Psychological Essentialism Virtues and Vices of Psychological Essentialism Empirical Indicators of Psychological Essentialism in Human Adults and Older Children Roots of Psychological Essentialism Sortal Object Individuation Distinguishing Deep/Inside from Superficial/Outside Features Summary and Outlook Cross-References References EST Estrogen Introduction Mechanisms of Estrogen Action on the Central Nervous System Estrogen and Cognition Estrogen and Cognitive Loss Conclusions Cross-References References Estrous Synonyms Introduction External and Internal Cues Which Activate the Estrous Cycle The Neuroendocrine Control of the Estrous Cycle Phases of Estrus Proestrus Estrous Metestrus and Diestrus Reproductive Behaviors During the Estrous Cycle Postpartum Estrus References Estrous, Oestrous Estrus, Oestrus, Heat Ethel Tobach Cross-References References Ethics Introduction What Is Animal Ethics? Ethics and Animals: A Glance at Where We´ve Been Beyond Animal Ethics: Investigations into the Inner Lives of Animals Conclusion: Ethics, Animals, and Science Cross-References References Ethogram Synonyms Definition Introduction Ethogram Requirements Defining Behavior Ethogram Uses Observational Methods Measuring the Behavior of Multiple Individuals Instrumentation and Reliability Cross-References References Euchromosome Eugenics Eukaryota Synonyms Definition Introduction Defining Features of Eukaryota Taxonomic Status Cellular Architecture of Eukaryota Intracellular Organelles Nucleus Mitochondria Chloroplasts Lysosomes Peroxisomes Cytoskeleton Flagella Endoplasmic Reticulum Golgi Apparatus Ribosomes Vacuoles Genomic Features Origin of Eukaryotes Conclusion Cross-References References Eukaryotes Eukaryotic Organisms Eureka Effect Definition Introduction What´s in a Name? Mapping the Moment Why Is Problem-Solving So Emotional? Eureka! In a Nutshell Cross-References References Evasion Eve gene Even-Toed Ungulate Biology Even-Toed Ungulate Locomotion Even-Toed Ungulates Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) Definition Advantages and Disadvantages of the ERPs Technique Components Cross-References References Evoked Response Potentials Steady-State Evoked Potentials Sensory Evoked Potentials Visual Evoked Potentials Auditory Evoked Potentials Somatosensory Evoked Potentials Motor Evoked Potentials References Evolution Evolution of Animal Color Vision Introduction Definition of Color Vision Dimensionality of Color Vision and Its Biology The Ubiquitous Opsins Opsin Histories Multiple Functional Roles for Photopigment Signals Evolution, Photopigments, and Color Vision Utility of Color Vision Cross-References References Evolution of Sex Evolutionarily Relevant Stimuli Evolutionarily Stable Strategies Definitions Introduction Nash Equilibrium Evolutionary Game Theory Evolutionary Stable Strategy and Population Optimality Future Directions References Evolutionary By-product Synonyms Definition Evolutionary Psychology Adaptation and By-product Adaptation or By-product? Cross-References References Evolutionary Determinism Evolutionary Ladder Evolutionary Psychology History of Evolutionary Psychology Central Premises of Evolutionary Psychology The Massive Modularity Hypothesis Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness Adaptiveness of Modern Humans´ Behavior Areas of Research in Evolutionary Psychology Sociality and Altruistic Behavior Language and Communication Emotions Mate Choice Male Selection Pressures and Mate Preferences Female Selection Pressures and Mate Preferences Research Methods in Evolutionary Psychology Criticism of Evolutionary Psychology Cross-References References Evolutionary Radiation Evolved Interaction Exact Number Exchange Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Behaviors Exchanged Exchange of Same Type of Behaviors: Reciprocity Exchange of Different Types of Behaviors: Interchange Interchange of Grooming Interchange of Food Ultimate Causes of Behavior Exchange Proximate Mechanisms of Behavior Exchange Biological Market Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Excretory System Introduction The Central Role of the Kidneys in the Urinary System Kidney Stones The Liver The Role of the Large Intestine in the Gastrointestinal Tract The Skin and Sweat Glands Summary Cross-References References Executive Function Introduction Inhibitory Control Working Memory Cognitive Flexibility Cross-References References Executive Monkey Study Historical Development of ``Psychosomatic Medicine´´ The ``Executive Monkey´´ Experiment: Description and Findings Subsequent Research: Being Able to Control Found to Reduce Stress and Pathology Addressing the ``Executive Monkey´´ Findings: Assessing the Importance of Signals Before Shock Findings from This Analysis: Exerting Control Reduces Stress and Ulceration in All Signal Conditions. Subsequent Analysis Lead... Tests of the Formulation and Explaining the ``Executive Monkey´´ Findings Concluding Comments References Exemplar Theory Introduction Definition History of Exemplar Theory Evaluation of Exemplar Theory Model Fits Learnability of Poorly Structured Categories Comparative Psychology Enters the Debate Monkeys Pigeons Exclusive-Or Tasks Conclusion Cross-References References Exodus Exon Synonyms Definition Introduction Molecular Tools for the Characterization of Exon Conclusion Cross-References References Expanded Triple Repeat Synonyms Definition Introduction Classification Noncoding TNR Expansion Friedreich Ataxia (FA) Fragile X Syndrome (FMR1/FRAXA) Myotonic Dystrophy (DM) Coding TNR Expansion (CAG/CTG)/Polyglutamine Expansion Spinal and Bulbar Muscular Atrophy (SBMA)/Kennedy´s Disease Spinocerebellar Ataxia, Type 1 (SCA1) Huntington´s Disease (HD) Dentatorubral-Pallidoluysian Atrophy (DRPLA) Haw River Syndrome (HRS) Machado-Joseph Disease (MJD/SCA3) Polyaspartic Acid Repeat Therapeutic Approach Conclusion Cross-References References Experience Projection Definition Introduction Knowing About Other Minds Experience Projection as a Solution to the Behavior-Reading Confound Experimental Progress Criticism of the Paradigm Cross-References References Experimental Cultural Diffusion Experimental Social Learning Explicit Memories Explicit Memory Exploratory Behavior Motivation to Explore Cross-References References Expressed Sequence Tags External Fertilization Definition Introduction Examples of External Fertilization Invertebrates Vertebrates Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Extinction in Learning Extinction in Classical Conditioning Extinction in Instrumental Conditioning Recovery of Responding After Extinction Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Reinstatement Renewal The Importance of Extinction Training in Therapy Conclusion Cross-References References Extra Nipple Extractive Foraging Hypothesis Extra-Pair Copula Extra-Pair Copulation Synonyms Antonyms Definition Evolutionary Context Extra-Pair Copulation Examples Birds Mammals Conclusions Cross-References References Extra-Pair Fertilization Extra-Pair Mating Extra-Pair Paternity Extrastriate Cortex Eyesight F Face Cell Face Processing in Different Brain Areas and Face Recognition Introduction Neuronal Responses to Faces in Different Temporal Lobe Cortex Visual Areas The Selectivity of One Population of Neurons for Faces Neurons Selective for Individual Face Features or for Combinations of Face Features Distributed Encoding of Face Identity Invariant Representations A Representation of Faces in the Amygdala A Representation of Faces in the Orbitofrontal Cortex ``Concept Cells´´ Recorded in Humans: Correspondence with Object-Place Memory-Related Neurons in Macaques References Face-Selective Neurons: Comparative Perspectives Synonyms Introduction The Origins of the Grandmother Cell Hypothesis ``Where´´ and ``What´´ Visual Pathways Face-Selective Neurons in Nonhuman Primates Face Processing in the Human Brain Face-Selective Neurons in Other Mammalian Species Do Birds Possess Face-Selective Neurons? Lateralization of Face Processing Concluding Thoughts Cross-References References Facial Expression Facial Recognition Facilitation Facultative Polyandry/Strategic Pluralism Synonyms Facultative Polyandry Flexible Mating Systems Monogamy, Polyandry, and the Ecology of Facultative Polyandry Cross-References References Facultative Trait Definition Introduction Examples of Facultative Trait Conclusion Cross-References References Fairness Falcon Locomotion Falconiformes Cognition Introduction Individual Learning Behavioral Innovation and Problem-Solving Social Learning Conclusion Cross-References References Falconiformes Flight Falconiformes Locomotion Synonyms Definition Flight Biomechanics in Falconinae Polyborniae Locomotion Falconry Adaptation to Urban Environments Conclusion Cross-References References Falconiformes Sensory Systems Synonyms Definition Introduction Vision Hearing Chemical Senses: Olfaction and Taste Somatic and Magnetic Senses Conclusions Cross-References References Fallacy of Origins Fallacy of Virtue False Perception Familiarity Synonyms Definition Introduction Theories of Familiarity Tasks Used to Examine Familiarity in Nonhuman Animals Conclusions Cross-References References Family Resemblance Introduction Prototype Versus Exemplar Strategies of Classification Examining Family Resemblance Category Learning Evidence for Prototype Comparison in Family Resemblance Category Learning Conclusion Cross-References References Farrowing Crate References Fascia Dentata Hippocampi Father of Modern Genetics Father´s Behavior Fats Fear Learning Fear Response Freezing as a Fear Response Fight, Flight, or Freezing Response The Role of the Amygdala Startle Response Conclusion Cross-References References Feather Damaging Behavior (FDB) Feather Picking Feather-Plucking Synonyms Definition Introduction Feather Pecking Behavioral Causes Treatments Cross-References References Feature Integration Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction Feature Integration Theory in Humans Feature Integration Theory Beyond Humans Feature Integration Theory in Insects Feature Integration Theory in Birds Feature Integration Theory in Fish Feature Integration Theory in Nonhuman Mammals Epilogue: Is Animal Advantage Possible? Cross-References References Fecundity Synonyms Definition Introduction Fecundity Measurements Fecundity Production and Temporal Dynamics Fecundity Dependencies and Trade-Offs Cross-References References Feed Feed Industry Synonyms Definition Introduction The History and Development of the Feed Industry The Scientific and Technological Development of the Feed Industry Feed Ingredients, Safety, and Production New and Alternative Ingredients in the Feed Industry Feed Analysis and Standards Diet Formulation Pressures on the Feed Industry Conclusion Cross-References References Feed Production Feeding Feeding Behavior Feeding Habits Feedstuff Manufacturing Feeling of Knowing Feigning Death Felidae Feline Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Perception Learning Social Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Feline Communication Synonyms Definition Introduction Vocal Communication Olfactory Communication Visual Communication Tactile Communication Feline Behavioral and Welfare Problems Due to Incomplete Understanding of Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Feline Cult Feline Diet Synonyms Definition Introduction Diet Nutritional Requirements Form of Diet Diet Preferences Diet-Related Health Issues Conclusion Cross-References References Feline Dispersal Feline Gaits Feline Life History Synonyms Introduction Reproduction Survival Personality Special Adaptations Longevity Conclusion Cross-References References Feline Locomotion Synonyms Definition Major Locomotor Modes Quadrupedal Gaits Jumping Pacing in Captive Cats Bio-inspired Robotics Feline Locomotion in Medicine Conclusion Cross-References References Feline Morphology Synonyms Definition Introduction Head Body Appendages Conclusion Cross-References References Feline Navigation Synonyms Definition Introduction Felid Morphology Aiding in Navigation Felid Dispersal and Navigation Within the Environment Conclusion Cross-References References Feline Sensory Systems Synonyms Definition Introduction Visual Sensing Olfactory and Gustatory Sensing Auditory and Vestibular Sensing Tactile Sensing Conclusion Cross-References References Felines in Religious Ritual Felis Female Choice Synonyms Definition Introduction Direct Precopulatory Choice Indirect Precopulatory Choice Direct Postcopulatory Choice Indirect Postcopulatory Choice Conclusions Cross-References References Female Defense Polygyny Synonyms Definition Introduction Female Defense Polygyny Distinguishing Female Defense and Resource Defense Polygyny Conclusion Cross-References References Female Gametes Feral Pigeon Fertility Synonyms Definition Fertility Proximate Factors Factors Affecting the Exposure to Intercourse Factors Affecting Exposure to Conception Factors Affecting Parturition Background Factors Fertility Rate Measurement Conclusion Cross-References References Fertilized Egg Fertilized Ovum Fetus Synonyms Definition Introduction Fetal Development in Humans Fetal Brain Development Factors Affecting Fetal Development Conclusion Cross-References References Fibril Fidelity Definition Theories of Social Learning Strategies Associated with Copying Fidelity Copying Fidelity and Conventional Versus Instrumental Interpretations of Behavior Cross-References References Fighting Ability Filament Filial Imprinting Definition Introduction Imprinting as a Learning Phenomenon Neural Bases of Imprinting Imprinting as a Tool to Study Animal Cognition References Finding Finding Out First digit First Diploid Cell of New Organism Fisher Synonyms Cross-References References Fisher´s Principle Fisherian Selection Fission-Fusion Synonyms Definition History of the Term Scientific Relevance of Fission-Fusion Dynamics Adaptive Features Mechanistic Basis Prospect for Future Research Conclusions Cross-References References Fission-Fusion Dynamics Fitness Synonyms Definition Introduction Unit of Selection in Defining Fitness A Caveat: Inclusive Fitness Measuring Fitness in Practice: Annual Measures Measuring Fitness in Practice: Lifetime Measures Return to the Inclusive Fitness Concept Caveat Emptor Cross-References References Fitness Relevance Fixation Fixed Action Patterns Synonyms Cross-References References Flesh-Eater Flight Floor and Ceiling Effects Cross-References References Florence Merriam Synonyms Definition Introduction Her Life Her Work Cross-References References Florence Merriam Bailey Florida Manatee Fluctuating Asymmetry (FA) Introduction The Definition of FA Measuring FA More Common Than It Seems: The Evolutionary Significance of FA What Is the Role of Environment and Genetics in FA? Summary Cross-References References Focal Animal Sampling Synonyms What is animal focal sampling? Cross-References References Focal Observation Focal Sampling Focal Sampling Methods Folk Physics Synonyms Definition Introduction Conceptual-Methodological Challenges in the Study of Folk Physics What is ``Understanding?´´ What is ``Common Sense´´ or ``Naturally-Occurring´´ Understanding? Why Does the Definition of Folk Physics Matter? Folk Physics: Contrasting Evidence Weight Gravity Support Conclusion Cross-References References Follitropin Alfa Follitropin Beta Food Food Calls Synonyms Definition Function of Food Calls Effects of Food Quantity, Preference, and Quality References Food Neophobia Cross-References References Food Patch Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Food Preference Food-Associated Calls Food-Associated Vocalizations Food-Caching Birds Food-Related Calls Footfall Footlet Forage Foraging Foraging by Honeybees Introduction Individual Foraging Behavior Locating and Collecting Forage Resources Communicating Forage Information Colony-Level Foraging Behavior Spreading Labor Across the Foraging Landscape Regulating Nectar Influx Homestatic Control of Pollen Stores Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Foraging Patches Foraging Trays Force Forced Copulation Synonyms Definitions Introduction Tactics Used in Forced Copulation Reasons for Forced Copulation Costs and Benefits for the Perpetrator Costs and Benefits for the Victim Conclusion Cross-References References Forced Desynchrony Form Fowl Framing Framing Effects Introduction to Framing Effects Framing Effects in Risky Choice: Gain and Loss Frames Emotion and Framing Effects Neural Correlates of Framing Effects Risky Choice Framing Effects in Nonhuman Animals Framing Effects Beyond Risky Choices Framing Effects in Other Translational Settings Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Frank Ambrose Beach Cross-References References Frans de Waal Cross-References References Fraternal Birth Order Effect Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Fraud Free Operant Response Synonyms Introduction Association Formation During Free Operant Conditioning: What Learning Underlies Responding? Contextual Control of Free Operant Responding: Associations Between the Context and the Response Influence of Stimuli on Free Operant Responding: Pavlovian-Instrumental Transfer Operant Extinction and Relapse Conclusion Cross-References References Free-Operant Avoidance Free-Running Cycle Synonyms Definition Introduction The Circadian System, Entrainment, and Free-Running Cycles Conclusion Cross-References References Frequency Distribution of Phenotypes Definition Introduction Relative Phenotype Frequency Graphical Representation of the Phenotypic Frequency Distribution Phenotype Versus Genotype Versus Allele Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Principle Genotype, Allelic, or Phenotype Frequency Estimation Using Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Principle Sample Problem Alleles and Allelic Frequency Genotype Frequency Steps in Solving Problems Using Hardy -Weinberg Equation Cross-References References Frequency-Dependent Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Examples of Frequency-Dependent Selection Evolutionary Significance of Frequency-Dependent Selection Cross-References References Friendliness Friendships in Animals Synonyms Introduction The Adaptive Value of Friendships Cooperation The Requirements of Friendships Cognitive Requirements Biochemical Mechanisms The Development of Friendships Conclusions Cross-References References Frog Locomotion Frugality Fruit Bat Locomotion Frustration Effects FSH Synonyms Definition FSH Structure Regulation of FSH Synthesis and Release HPG Axis FSH Function Across Life-History Transitions Adulthood Females Males Fetal/Neonatal Period Puberty Pregnancy, Parturition, and Lactation FSH and Fertility: Menopause, Andropause, and Infertility Evolution Environmental Influences on FSH Secretion Conclusion Cross-References References Function Functional Genomics Definition Background Introduction Functional Genomics in Cognition and Behavior Analysis Functional Genomics in Psychiatric/Behavioral Disorders Conclusion Cross-References References Functionalism Analytic Philosophy and Functionalism Problems with Functionalism as a Theory of Human Cognition Functionalism and Animal Cognition The A-T Alternative Functionalism, the A-T Model, and Animal Cognition Conclusions Cross-References References Functionally Relevant Fungi Conclusion Cross-References References Websites Accessed Fusion-Fission Future Planning G Gait Synonyms Definition Defining Gaits: Duty Factor and Limb Phase Defining Gaits: Movements of the Center of Mass Conclusions Cross-References References Galactin Galago Galliformes Locomotion Synonyms Definition Terrestrial Locomotion Aerial Locomotion Impact of Domestication Influence in Understanding Human Locomotion Conclusion Cross-References References Gambling Fallacies Definitions Introduction The Monte Carlo or Gambler´s Fallacy The Near Miss Fallacy Chasing Losses, Entrapment, or Sunk Cost Conclusion Cross-References References Game Theory Gametes Synonyms Definition Purpose of Gamete Formation Types of Gametes Spermatogenesis Oogenesis Conclusions Cross-References References Ganglion Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution Types of Ganglia Autonomic Ganglia Cranial Ganglia Dorsal Root Ganglia (Sensory Ganglia) Basal Ganglia Conclusion Cross-References References Gap Gause´s Exclusion Law Gause´s Law Synonyms Definition Introduction G.F. Gause Gause´s Law Grinnell´s Axiom The Logical Status of Gause´s Law Exceptions to Gause´s Law Gause´s Law and the Evolution of Animal Cognition The Application of Gause´s Law to Homo Sapiens Conclusion Cross-References References Gause´s Principle Geese Gender Balance Gender Differences Gender-Based Gender-Related Gene Gene Expression Synonyms Definitions Heredity and Gene Expression Gene Expression: Information Flow from DNA to Proteins Transcription in Eukaryotes Posttranscriptional Processing Translation in Eukaryotes Importance of Studying Gene Expression Cross-References References Gene Expression Profiling Synonyms Definitions Introduction Expressed Sequence Tags DNA Microarrays RNA Sequencing Cross-References References Gene Flow Synonyms Definition Introduction Examples of Gene Flow Conclusion Cross-References References Gene Frequency Synonyms Definition Introduction Calculation of Gene or Allele Frequency Calculation of Gene or Allele Frequency with Multiple Alleles Conclusion Cross-References References Gene Imprint Gene Interaction Gene Locus Gene Map Synonyms Definition Gene Map Genetic Mapping Physical Mapping Conclusion Cross-References References Gene Migration Gene Polymorphism Gene Pool Synonyms Definition Introduction Changes in the Gene Pool How to Measure Gene Pool? Gene Pool Centers Gene Pool Concept in Crop Breeding (My Agriculture Information Bank 2015) Conclusion Cross-References References Web References Gene Targeting Definition Introduction General View Gene Targeting Techniques Nuclease Systems Cre-lox System Viral-Based Systems Oligonucleotides Conclusion Cross-References References Genechip Generic Genes Definition Main Text Genes Are Inheritable Genetic Units Genetic Expression Inheritance of Genetic Information Genes and Disorders Cross-References References Genetic Carrier Genetic Code Definition Introduction Discovery Characteristics of Genetic Code Nonstandard Amino Acids Cross-References References Genetic Compatibility and Sexual Selection Genetic Compatibility/Histocompatibility Synonyms Definition Introduction Dilemma Between Genetic Compatibility and Genetic Dissimilarity Ways to Achieve Genetic Compatibility Genetic Incompatibility Hypothesis Homozygote Disadvantage Coadapted Gene Complex and Genetic Compatibility Selfish Genetic Elements and Genetic Compatibility Conclusion Cross-References References Genetic Constitution Genetic Drift Cross-References References Genetic Fallacy Synonyms Definition Description Cross-References References Genetic Fingerprinting Genetic Inheritance Genetic Make-up Genetic Marker Genetic Material Genetic Polymorphism Genetic Translocation Genetic Variation Synonyms Definition Introduction Genetic Variation Drives Evolution Sources of Genetic Variation Mutations Gene Flow Sexual Reproduction Types of Genetic Variants Single-Nucleotide Variations (SNV) Insertions and Deletions (Indels) Structural Variations Copy Number Variations (CNV) Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTRs) Microsatellites Minisatellites Satellite Telomere-Repeat Arrays Chromosomal Rearrangements Techniques for Detecting Genomic Variations Applications of Genomic Variations Screening for Genetic Diseases Pharmacogenomics Biological Markers Forensic Technologies Conclusion Cross-References References Genetically Modified Genetics Genital System Genome Mapping Genome Project Genome Some Facts Regarding Human Genome Genomics Genomes in Medical Research History of Human Genome Project (HGP): A Book of Life Data of few Organisms Studied in Human Genome Project Bioinformatics in HGP Goals of Human Genome Project How They Sequence DNA? Methodologies of Genome Project Applications of HGP Achievements Following the HGP Completion What We Learnt Out of HGP? Limitations Conclusion References Genome-Wide Association Studies Genomic Compatibility/Incompatibility Genomic Context Genomic Imprinting Synonyms Definition How Imprinting Works? Evolution of Genomic Imprinting Mechanism of Genomic Imprinting Imprinted Gene Organization and Regulation Genetic Mapping of Imprinted Genes Genomic Imprinting and Genetic Disorders in Humans Genomic Imprinting in Other Species Conclusion Cross-References References Genotype Synonyms Definition Introduction Genotypic Ratio Genotyping Effect of Environment on Genotype Conclusion Cross-References References Genotypic Ratio Genus Definition Introduction Taxonomy/Taxonomic Hierarchy Taxonomic Rank/ Category Binomial Nomenclature Rank: Genus Genus: Two Types Use in Taxonomy Type Genus Type Species Cross-References References Geographic Speciation Geometric Encoding Synonyms Cross-References References Geometric Illusion Geometric Module Cross-References References George Romanes Introduction A Sketch of Romanes´s Life Romanes´s Theory of the Evolution of Human Intelligence The Secondary Literature on Romanes Cross-References References Georgia State University´s Language Research Center History LRC Facilities LRC Animals LRC Scientists and Caretakers LRC Support LRC Contributions Summary Cross-References References Gerald S. Wilkinson Cross-References References Gestalt Synonyms Definition Introduction Origins of Gestalt Theory Gestalt Laws of Form Gestalt Perception Theory and Learning Conclusion Cross-References References Gestalt Laws Gestation Stall Synonyms Definition Introduction Alternative and Comparisons History Public Attitudes Conclusion Cross-References References Gesture Gestures Ghost Control Definition Introduction Theory Methodology Species Tested Criticisms of the Ghost Control Cross-References References Gibsonian Approach in Ecological Psychology Gibsonian Approach to Depth Gisela Kaplan Prehistory Changing Career Research Emphases Cross-References References Global Geometry Go/No-Go Procedure Synonyms Definition and Specificity Design and Measured Variables To Go or Not to Go? Application in Nonhuman Studies Conclusions Cross-References References Goal Synonyms Cross-References References Goal-Directed Behavior Goggles Experiment Cross-References References Gonad Gonochorism Synonyms Definition Sex in the Animal Kingdom Cross-References References Gonochory Good Genes Hypothesis Gordon Burghardt Early Life and Educational Background Professional Career Research Interests Cross-References Selected Bibliography Books Articles and Chapters Gordon Gallup Mirror Self-Recognition Tonic Immobility and Open Field Behavior Human Reproductive Competition Yawning as a Brain Cooling Mechanism Cross-References References Goshawk Graded Signals Synonyms Definition of Graded Signals and Some Clarifying Examples When Are Graded Signals Beneficial? How Are Discrete and Graded Signals Studied and What Has Been Revealed? Cross-References References Grains Grandmother Cell Grandmother Hypothesis Definition Introduction Evidence for Alternative Explanations Maternal Versus Paternal Grandmothers Toothed Whales´ Grannies Critique of the Grandmother Hypothesis Conclusions Cross-References References Grasp Reflex Grasping Grasping Hands and Feet Grasping Reflex Synonyms Introduction The Different Groups of Grasping Reflexes The Grasping Reflex in the Field of Medicine The Grasping Reflex in Other Primates Conclusion Cross-References References Gravity Bias Gravity Error Great Ape Great Apes Great Chain of Being Green Beard Definition Green Beard: an Evolutionary Strategy of Cooperation Cross-References References Greenhouse Effect Gregor Johann Mendel Gregor Mendel Synonyms Introduction Mendel´s Infancy and Uncertainty About His Date of Birth, Name, Family, and Village The Childhood and Nurturing of a Naturalist Stretch to Lipnik Followed by a Jump to Opava (or Troppau) Journey to Become ``the Monk´´ Returning to School and String of Failure in Exams Serendipity that Led to Beginning of Genetics The Other Scientific Domains and His Final Years Cross-References References Greyhound Racing Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Grinnell´s Axiom Gripping Grooming Synonyms Definition Cross-References Group Living Synonyms Introduction Evolution of Group Living Foraging Defense from Predators Access to Mating Opportunities Interspecies Variation in Grouping Patterns, Mating Strategies, and Social Structure Eusociality Monogamy Cooperative Breeding Polygamy Mixed-Sex and Multilevel Societies Fission-Fusion Dominance Dispersal Social Bonds Intraspecies Variation in Grouping Patterns, Mating Strategies, and Social Structure Conclusion Cross-References References Group Nesting Group Singing Grouping Growth Guesser-Knower Paradigm Definition Introduction Guesser-Knower Paradigm Other Species Interpretation and Criticism Ecological Validity Conclusion Cross-References References Gustation Gustatory Gustatory Signals Gyrus Dentatus H Habituation Synonyms Definition Introduction Characteristics Theoretical Support Cross-References References Habituation Effect Hamilton´s Paradigm Hamilton´s Rule Hand Hand Preference Handicap Hypothesis Synonyms The Handicap Hypothesis Cross-References References Handicap Principle Haplorhine Haplorhini Synonyms Definition Haplorhini Taxonomy and Range Haplorhini Characteristics Conclusions Cross-References References Haplotype Definition Main Text Haplotype and Ancestry Haplotypes and Genetic Disorders Cross-References References Haptic Haptic Perception Haptic Sense Hare Harem Defense Polygyny Harry Harlow Introduction Scientific Interests Theory of Affection Awards and Honors Controversy Cross-References References Hatching Hawk Healthy Mate Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Mate Choice and the Benefits of Mate Assessment Direct Benefits Indirect Benefits Sexy Sons Good Genes Healthy Mate Hypothesis Hamilton-Zuk Hypothesis Parasite Avoidance Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Hearing Heart Heat Regulation Helper Helping Behavior Types of Helping Behavior Altruism Cooperation Altruism and Group Level Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Hematophagy Definition What Is Hematophagy? Adaptations for Hematophagy Locating a Host Attaching to a Host Accessing Blood Digesting Blood Significance and Summary Cross-References References Hemispheric Dominance Hemispheric Specialization Synonyms Definition Introduction Hemispheric Specialization Pattern Evolutionary Aspects of Hemispheric Specialization Structural Foundations of Cerebral Asymmetries Ontogeny of Hemispheric Specialization Testing Hemispheric Specializations in the Lab Cross-References References Herbert Spencer Definition Introduction Spencer´s Scientific Importance Spencer on Cognition Spencer as the First Evolutionary Psychologist Spencer on Instinct Conclusion Cross-References References Herbert Terrace Early Life and Education Stimulus Discrimination in Operant Research Project Nim Animal Cognition and Serial Learning Metacognition The Evolution of Language Cross-References References Herbivore Introduction Herbivores and Herbivory Diversity of Herbivores Herbivory: Relationship Between Plants and Herbivores Herbivory: Adaptations and Modifications Among Herbivores Herbivory: Defense Systems Among Plants and Herbivores Defense Systems Among Plants Morphological Defense Systems in Plants Deposition of Complex Chemical Structures in Plant Cell Walls Phytochemical Defense System in Plants Defense Systems Among Herbivores Significance of Herbivory References Herding Hereditary Carrier Heredity Synonyms Definition Introduction Basis of Heredity Gene Transmission in Mitosis Gene Transmission in Meiosis Mutation Genotype and Phenotype Relationship Natural Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Heritability Heritability Estimate Synonyms Definition Introduction Heritability Types: Broad-Sense Heritability and Narrow-Sense Heritability Methods for Estimating Heritability Conclusion Cross-References References Heritability Fallacy (in Behavioral Genetics) Heritability of Behavior Definition Introduction Heritability: Concepts, Mechanisms, and Misconceptions Misconceptions Study Designs for Estimating Heritability of Behavior Twin Studies Adoption Studies Children of Twins Molecular Genetic Designs Developmental Models Empirical Evidence for Heritability of Behavior Gene-Environment Interplay for Behavioral Traits Fallacy of Classical Twin-Based Studies Estimating Heritability of Behavior Applied Implications Cross-References References Heritable Factors Hermann von Helmholtz Preface Pre-University Years University Education and Service as Physician-Surgeon in Prussian Army Determining the Speed of Neural Conduction Vitalism´s Parallel in Psychology Helmholtz´s Other Academic Positions Additional Accomplishments by Helmholtz Helmholtz´s Research in Vision Color Vision Helmholtz´s Research in Audition Three of Helmholtz´s Most Notable Protégés Physics Neurobiology and Biophysics Psychology Closing Remarks Helmholtz´s Wives Helmholtz´s Ill Fated Voyage to the United States Honors and Awards Cross-References References Hermaphrodite Synonyms Introduction Types of Hermaphroditism Examples of Hermaphroditism Evolution of Hermaphroditism Cross-References References Heterogametic Synonyms Definition Heterogametic Mutation Random Genetic Drift Selection Female Heterogametic Systems Cross-References References Heterogamy Heterohyrax brucei Heterosis Heterospecific Group Heterothermy Heterotroph Heterozygote Advantage Heterozygote Superiority Synonyms Definition Introduction Gillespie Model Elemental Force Behind the Heterozygote Superiority Mutation Genetic Drift Natural Selection Evidences in Favor of Heterozygote Superiority Sickle-Cell Anemia Cystic Fibrosis Triose Phosphate Isomerase Resistance to Hepatitis C Virus Infection MHC Heterozygosity and Human Scent Preferences BAFF and Autoimmune Disease Livestock and Pets Other Examples Conclusion Cross-References References Heterozygous Chromosomes Hibernation Synonyms Definition Introduction The Process of Hibernation Hibernators Birds Chiroptera Mammalia Monotremata Marsupialia Placentalia Sleep and Hibernation Cross-References References Further Reading Hidden Humans Hippocampus Definition Introduction Historical Developments Hippocampal Neuroanatomy: Gross Anatomy and Microcircuitry Computational Roles of Hippocampal Subregions Place Cells and the Cognitive Map Hippocampal Rhythms: Theta and Sharp Wave Ripples Temporal Coding Conclusion Cross-References References Holding On Home Base Cross-References References Home Range Definition Introduction Home Range Structure and Dynamics Estimating and Modeling Home Ranges Conclusion Cross-References References Homeobox Gene Definition Introduction The Homeodomain Structure of the Homeodomain Sequence Specificity Classes of Homeobox Genes Hox Genes Biological Function Conclusion Cross-References References Homeostasis Introduction Maintaining Homeostasis Homeostasis and Adaptation Redundancy of Homeostatic Regulatory Mechanisms Cross-References References Homicide Homing Hominid Introduction Hominid Cognition: What Is Known So Far Hominid Behavior: Links to Cognition Underlying Mechanisms of Cognition and Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Hominid Phylogeny Hominoid Introduction Gibbon Cognition: Are Lesser Apes Lesser? Gibbon Behavior: Links to Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Hominoidea Gaits Hominoidea Locomotion Synonyms Definition Major Locomotor Modes Technological Innovation and the Evolution of Human Bipedalism Conclusion Cross-References References Hominoidea Morphology Synonyms Definition Introduction Morphology Overview Cranium Dentition Postcranium The Vertebral Column, Thorax, and Pelvis Forelimb Hindlimb Soft Tissue Features Brain Gut Reproductive Anatomy: Relative Testes Size, Sexual Swellings, and Secondary Sex Characteristics Hair and Sweat Glands Implications of Morphology for Behavior and Evolution Hominoid Morphology and the Terminal Branch Forest Frugivory Hypothesis Hominoid Sexual Dimorphism and Behavior Hominoid Brain Size, Body Size, and Life History Parallel Evolution and Hominoid Morphology Cross-References References Hominoidea Navigation Synonyms Definition Introduction About Navigation Navigation in the Laboratory Navigation in the Natural World Monkey Navigation with Field Experiments Chimpanzee Navigation in the Tropical Rainforest Conclusion Cross-References References Hominoidea Sensory Systems Synonyms Definition Introduction Audition Olfaction Vision Taste Touch Conclusion and Future Directions Cross-References References Homo erectus Definition Who Were They? Geographical Extend What Did They Look Like? Mode of Life Other Remarkable Fossils Relationship to Homo sapiens The Question of Origin Theories of Gradual Change Theories of Punctuated Change Conclusion Cross-References References Homo ergaster Definition Introduction Systematics Archaeology and Behavior Cognition: A Caveat Cross-References References Homo floresiensis Holotype Other Individuals Age Stone Artifacts Ecology Phylogeny Cross-References References Homo heidelbergensis Definition Introduction What Is H. heidelbergensis? What Are the Characteristics of H. heidelbergensis? The Role of H. heidelbergensis in Human Evolution Changing Places: Recent Developments Conclusion Cross-References References Homo sapiens Synonyms Definition Introduction Homo sapiens Today We Are All Homo sapiens How to Recognize a Living Homo sapiens Homo sapiens: A (Hyper)social Species? Homo sapiens in the Past: Origin and Evolutionary History Early Hominins and the Origin of the ``Human Lineage´´ The Genus Homo: A Single Living Species, Numerous Extinct Species From Cro-Magnon to Omo Kibish: The Earliest Fossil Evidences for Homo sapiens How to Recognize a Fossil Homo sapiens? Hypotheses on the Origin of Homo sapiens The Onset of a Specific Homo sapiens ``Modern Behavior´´? Homo sapiens at the ``Conquest´´ of Planet Earth Leave (and Not Leave) Africa: H. sapiens´ Dispersals Throughout Africa A Series of Aborted Out of Africa Events? New Territories, Encounters, and Interbreeding Asia, Australia, Europe, America, and the Pacific Conclusion Cross-References References Homogametic Synonyms Definition Introduction Homogametic Male Homogametic Female Evolution of Sex Chromosomes: Homogamety and Heterogamety Cross-References References Homogamety Homogamy Homological Homologous Homologous Recombination Homology Synonyms Definition Introduction Homology in Physical Features Homology and Evolution Neurological Homology Homologous Genes Homology in Cognition/Learning and Behavior Human-Animal Behavioral Homology Uniform Homologous Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Homology Directed Repair Homoplasy Definition Homoplasy Cross-References References Homosexual Synonyms Definitions Introduction How Homosexual Orientation Persists in the Population Homosexual Evolved Psychology Costs and Benefits of Homosexual Behaviors Conclusion Cross-References References Homosexual Ideology Homosexuality Homosexuals Homozygosity Synonyms Definition Introduction Definition of Homozygosity Consequences of Homozygosity Cross-References References Homunculus Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Honest Mimetic Signal Honest Signaling Definition Introduction Evolution of Honest Signaling Examples Conclusion Cross-References References Hood´s Gravity Rules Synonyms Definition Hood´s Discovery of the Gravity Bias in Young Children Subsequent Developmental Studies Understanding the Causal Mechanism of the Tube Gravity-Specific Bias Inhibitory Control Explicit Versus Implicit Measures of the Gravity Bias Nonhuman Animal Studies Nonhuman Primate Studies Domestic Dog Studies Conclusion Current Limitations and Future Directions Cross-References References Horizontal Gene Transfer Hormones and Behavior Introduction Hormones: Basic Handcuff Types and Structure Sources Local Synthesis by Cortical Neurons Mechanisms of Action Endocrine System and Physiological Effects of Hormones Behavioral Endocrinology As a Discipline History Commonly Used Investigations and Experimental Methods Hormonal Homeostasis and Its Linking to Behavior Circadian Control of Hormone-Regulated Behavior Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB): A Body-Brain Interface in Hormonal Action Crossing Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) No BBB in Selective Brain Regions Neuron-Hormone Interactions Inside the Brain Hormone-Induced Neuroplasticity Cortical and Subcortical Control Aminergic Release from the Brain Stem and Hypothalamic Nuclei: A Closer Function as Hormones Setting of Moods, Emotions, and Impulses Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)-Hormone Cross Regulation Gut Hormones: Influence on Behavior Hormonal Induction of Behavior: Underlying Mechanisms Genetic and Epigenetic Mechanisms Institution of Social Behavior in a Newborn Hormonal Disruption in Developing Fetus: Residual Effect on Adult Behavior Hormonal Correlates of Homosexual Behavior Hormone-Induced Behaviors: A Brief Overview Survival and Adaptive Behavior Sexual and Reproductive Behavior Aggressive and Violent Behavior Unethical Behavior Oxytocin: A Molecular Mediator of Positive Behavior and Bonding Personality Trait Association Pathological Behavior Cross-References References Hormones and Cognition Introduction Stress Hormones and Cognition Corticosteroid Receptors and Cognition Dose-Dependency Moderate GC Dose Low and High GC Dose Thyroid Hormones and Cognition Thyroid Hormone Receptors and Cognition Dose-Dependency Reproductive Hormones Estrogen Testosterone Progesterone Nonapeptide Hormones Oxytocin Vasopressin Cross-References References Hormones and Face Preferences Introduction Theoretical Background Female Face Preferences and Hormones Male Face Preferences for Females Conclusions Cross-References References Horse Horse Gait Horse Gaits Horse Locomotion Horseback Riding Synonyms Definition Introduction English Style Racing Western Style Rodeo Trail Riding Vaulting Therapeutic Riding Conclusion Cross-References References Horses Hospitalism Hostile Behavior Hostility Host-Parasite Interactions Hotshot Definition Description Cross-References References Hotspot Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusions Cross-References References Huddling Synonyms Definition Introduction Where Does Huddling Occur? Benefits of Huddling Costs of Huddling Proximate Mechanisms of Huddling Conclusion Cross-References References Human Human Approach Test Synonyms Use in Domestic Animals Use in Zoo Animals Use in Laboratory Animals Conclusions Cross-References References Human Being Human Cooperation Definition Introduction Reciprocal Altruism Kin Selection Multilevel Selection and Cultural Group Selection Discussion Cross-References References Human Infancy and Childhood Synonyms Definitions Cross-References References Human Leukocyte Antigen (in Humans) and H-2 (in Mice) Human Motor Control Human-Animal Interaction Definition Introduction Types of Human-Animal Interactions Affiliative Relationships Animal-Assisted Interventions Animal-Assisted Education Animal-Assisted Therapy Animal-Assisted Activities Service Animals Effects of Human-Animal Interactions Behavioral Educational Physiological Stress Bonding Physical Activity Psychological Conclusion Cross-References References Human-Horse Interaction Human-Horse Interaction Humans Humiliation Hummingbirds Hunt Hunting Synonyms Definition Introduction Hunting for Bushmeat Hunting and Wildlife Trade Hunting for Sport Human-Wildlife Interactions Conclusion Cross-References References Husbandry Synonyms Definition Introduction The Basics Additional Considerations Relationship to Welfare Conclusion Cross-References References Hybrid Definition Description Fertility and Viability Natural and Artificial Hybridization Cross-References References Hybrid Vigor Synonyms Definition Introduction Origin and History of Hybrid Vigor Cross-References References Hydroregulation Hymenopteran Eusociality Introduction: The Paradox Hamilton´s Solution A Continuing Conundrum The Evolutionary Natural History of Eusociality The Comparative Method Multilevel Selection The Controversy Conclusions Cross-References References Hyoid Bone, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Anatomical Location and Structure Function Muscle Articulations Ossification Abnormalities Fracturing Cross-References References Hypertensin Hypometabolism Hypophysis Hypothalamic Pituitary Axis Hypothalamus Definition Introduction Interaction with the Autonomic Nervous System Interaction with the Endocrine System Behavioral Functions Cross-References References Hypothesis-Driven Hyracoidea Synonyms Introduction Nutrition and Feeding Behavior Behavior Sociality Locomotion Reproduction Communication Cognition Conclusions Cross-References References I IACUC Introduction Ethics of Animal Research Animal Use Protocol Animal Housing and Enrichment Occupational Health and Safety in Animal Activities Protocol Review Outcomes Ongoing Oversight of Approved Protocols Changes to Approved Protocols Noncompliance Conclusion References Ideational Behavior Identity by Descent (IBD) Illusion Image Score Imagination Imitation Synonyms History of Defining Imitation The Complexity of Imitation Methods of Studying Imitation Mirror Neurons and Imitation The Origins of Imitation Imitation in Humans Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Imitation Game Immanuel Kant Anthropocentric Animal Ethic Animals Have Souls Evolutionary Descent and Material Emergence Censorship and Politicization of Evolution Appraisal References Immobilization Immune Immune System Immunity Definition Introduction The Innate Immune Response The Adaptive Immune Response Cross-References References Immunologic Immunologically Immunology Synonyms Definition Introduction Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity Conclusion Cross-References References Immunopathology Imperceptibles Implicit Memories Impossible Task Paradigm Synonyms Definition Introduction Methods and aims of the impossible task paradigm Cross-References References Imprinting References Additional Sources Impulse Control Impulsivity Inattention Blindness Inborn Reflex Inbreeding Depression Definition Introduction Inbreeding Depression in Plants Inbreeding Depression in Animal Breeding (Vipera berus) Mode of Action Genetic Origin of Inbreeding Depression Molecular Approaches to Inbreeding Depression Conclusion Cross-References References Incentive Relativity Introduction: From Folk Psychology to Experimental Research Brief Historical and Terminological Background Consummatory Successive Negative Contrast (cSNC) Detection Motivation Emotion Memory Anticipatory Negative Contrast (ANC) Detection Motivation Emotion Memory Conclusions Cross-References References Inclusive Fitness Synonyms Definition Introduction Hamilton´s Rule Cross-References References Incomplete Penetrance Synonyms Definition Introduction Case Study: Inbred Mice Study with Mutated Collagen Gene (COL1A1) Case Study: Management of the Blindness of Wolves Bred in Captivity Conclusion Cross-References References Incubating Incubation Synonyms Definition Introduction Incubation as a Conceptual Framework Cross-References References Incubation Behavior Indicator Species Synonyms Definition Species as Indicators Species Selection Valuable Taxa Indicator Habitats Indicator or Keystone Species Cross-References References Indirect Association Definition Association Studies Linkage Disequilibrium Indirect Association Cross-References References Indirect Perception Indispensability Reduction: Decrease Individual Individual Differences Individual Genotype Growth Individual Recognition Definition Introduction Social Contexts in which Individual Recognition is Used Interspecific Variation in Individual Recognition across Contexts Intraspecific Variation in Individual Recognition across Contexts Complexity of Individual Recognition Cognitive and Sensory Adaptations in Receivers to Facilitate Accurate Recognition Individual Recognition from the Signaler´s Perspective (Individual Identity Signals) Signals Versus Cues Negative Frequency-Dependent Selection Acts on Signalers Effects of Individual Identity Signaling on Phenotypes and Genotypes Conclusions Cross-References References Individual Sow Accommodation Individual-Based Modelling Individual-Orientated Modelling Inductive Reasoning Definition Introduction Causal and Probabilistic Inferences Optimization of Strategies from Sampling Categorization Conclusion Cross-References References Inequity Aversion Synonyms Definition Introduction The Study of Inequity Aversion in Humans The Study of Inequity Aversion in Nonhumans The Phylogeny of Inequity Aversion The Influence of Inequity on Cooperation in Nonhumans The Evolution of Fairness Cross-References References Infant Depression Infanticide Definition Introduction Hypotheses for the Role of Infanticide Counterstrategies to Infanticide Conclusion Cross-References References Infectious Agent Infectious Particle Inference by Exclusion Inferior Temporal Cortex Infidelity Information Processing Information Theory Information Transmission Informational RNA Information-Based Approach In-Group Synonyms Definition Introduction Future Directions and Conclusions Cross-References References Inhibition Synonyms Definition Introduction Examples Conclusion Cross-References References Inhibition of Delay Synonyms Definition Introduction Characteristics and Parameters What Is Learned During Inhibition of Delay? Theoretical Explanations of Inhibition of Delay Conclusion Cross-References References Inhibitory Avoidance Injury-Feigning Behavior Innate Behaviors Synonyms Definition Reflexes History of the Reflex Other Innate Behaviors Fixed and Modal Action Patterns Taxis Kinesis Cross-References References Innate Reflex Innate Releasing Mechanism Synonyms Definition Releaser Mechanisms Intraspecific Sign Stimuli Interspecific Sign Stimuli Supernormal Stimuli Sign Stimuli in Humans Limiting Factors Cross-References References Innovation Synonyms Introduction: History and Definitions Problem Solving: The Paradigm Problem Solving: Who Are the Innovators? Are Innovators Particularly Motivated or Exploratory? Are Innovators More Intelligent? Motor Flexibility Conclusions Cross-References References Insect Communication Synonyms Definition Introduction Modalities of Insect Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Insect Diet Definition Introduction Nutrients Proteins Lipids Carbohydrates Vitamins Minerals Water Consequences of Diet on Behavior and Physiology Studying Nutrient Regulation: Nutritional Geometry Behavioral Regulation Physiological Regulation Consequences of Diet on Fitness Consequences of Diet on Biotic Interactions Social Behavior Ecological Interactions Symbionts Parasites and Pathogens Dietary Breath and Niche Partitioning Conclusions Cross-References References Insect Life History Introduction Types of Reproduction Mating Behavior Mate Location and Recognition Courtship Reproductive System: Male Internal Reproductive Organs Sperm Production Transfer of Sperm to the Female Reproductive System: Female Internal Reproductive Organs Oogenesis Ovulation and Fertilization of the Egg Oviposition Egg and Embryology Egg Structure Embryogenesis Viviparity and Ovoviviparity Postembryonic Development Hatching Immature Development Metamorphosis Polymorphism Cross-References References Insect Locomotion Synonyms Alternative Words Definition Insect Legs General Structure Muscles Muscle Attachments Locomotion in Insects Walking and Running Patterns of Leg Movement Neural Coordination of Leg Movements Jumping Crawling Locomotion in Aquatic Insects References Insect Morphology Introduction General Body Plan Body Wall Head Orientation Compound Eyes, Ocelli, and Stemmata Antennae Mouthparts Neck and Thorax Thoracic Appendages Wings Legs Abdomen Abdominal Appendages External Genitalia Male Female Cross-References References Insect Movement Insect Navigation Definition Introduction Basic Orientation to Cues Searching Behavior Exploratory Search Systematic Search Path Integration Directional Information: Celestial Compass Distance Information: Odometer Integration of Direction and Distance Information Learning Terrestrial Visual Cues Learning Walks and Learning Flights Route Following Integration of Multiple Navigational Cues Conclusions Cross-References References Insect Sensory System Introduction Nervous System Basic Elements Brain Peripheral Nervous System Stomodeal Nervous System Perception and Sense Organs Mechanoreception Sensors Chemoreception Olfaction Contact Chemoreception Photoreception Compound Eye Ocelli Stemmata Dermal Light Sense Temperature and Humidity Cross-References References Insectivora or Eulipotyphla Locomotion Insectivore Diet Introduction Being an Insectivore Detecting Insects Capturing Insects Energetics of Insectivory Insects as Food Insect Lifestage Insect Diet Chitin Other Nutrients The Future of Insectivory Cross-References References Insectivore Locomotion Synonyms Definition Shrew Locomotion Mole Locomotion Hedgehog Locomotion Conclusion Cross-References References Insects Insight Synonyms Definition Origins of the Notion of Insight: Köhler on Chimpanzee Problem-Solving Definitions of Insight Insight and Behaviorism Insight as Practical Intelligence Blind Versus Insightful Trial and Error Insight and Experience Training Insight: A Behavior Analysis Recipe Spontaneous Avian Insight: The Mentality of Corvids Insight Mechanisms: Causality and Planning Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Insight in Pigeons Synonyms Definition Introduction The Generativity Theory Means-End Reasoning in Pigeons Conclusions Cross-References References Insight in Rats Synonyms Definition Introduction Testing Rats´ Insight in Mazes Fortuitous Observations of Insight in Rats Hebb´s Theory of Insight Insight: Is It a Synonym of Reasoning in Rats? Insight as Spontaneous Interconnection of Behaviors in Rats Conclusions Cross-References References Instinct Theories of Instinct Prior to the Nineteenth Century Early Evolutionary Conceptions of Animal Instinct Darwin´s Evolutionary Construction of Animal Instinct Instincts After Darwin The Behaviorist Reaction to Theories of Instinct The Rebirth of Instinct Theory in Ethology The Contemporary Resolution Cross-References References Instinctive Reflex Instruction Instrumental Behavior Instrumental Blocking Definition Introduction How Instrumental Blocking Is Tested Cross-References References Instrumental Conditioning Instrumental Learning Synonyms Definition Introduction The Three-Term Contingency The Antecedent The Response The Consequence Strengthening Behavior Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Weakening Behavior Positive Punishment Negative Punishment The History of Instrumental Learning Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement Intermittent Reinforcement Extinction Other Schedules Response-Reinforcer Relations Temporal Contiguity Response-Reinforcer Contingency Instrumental Learning and Behavioral Neuroscience Early Brain Stimulation Dopamine and Reinforcement Instrumental Learning and Comparative Cognition Temporal Regulation of Behavior Memory Conclusion Cross-References References Instrumental Object Manipulation Insuck Integumental System Synonyms Definition Introduction Functions of Skin Types of Skin Microscopic Structure of Skin Epidermis Cells of Epidermis Dermis Surface Irregularities of Skin Hypodermis (Tela Subcutanea; Subcutaneous Tissue) Epidermal Skin Appendages Hair and Hair Follicles Arrector Pili Muscles Sebaceous Glands Sweat Glands Nails Clinical Correlation of Nail Embryology Vascular Supply of Skin Nerve Supply of Skin Clinical Significance References Intellectual Abilities Intellectual Capacities Intellectual Functions Intellectual Processes Intelligence Introduction Learning to Learn Relational Learning Categorization or Stimulus Class Formation Perceptual Classes Equivalence Classes Same/Different Learning Memory Strategies Directed (Intentional) Forgetting Episodic Memory Prospective Memory Processes Navigation Counting Reasoning Perspective Taking Self-Recognition Imitation Tool Use Language What Animals Can Tell Us About Suboptimal Human Behavior? Cognitive Dissonance Suboptimal (Gambling-Like) Behavior Sunk Cost When Less Is More Conclusions Cross-references References Intentionality Definitions Intentionality as Aboutness Intentionality as Purpose Intentionality and Goal-Directedness Criteria of Intentional Action in Nonverbal Organisms Is Intentionality the Same as Goal-Directedness? Planning Intentions About Intentions: Theory of Mind Communicative Intentionality Communicative Intent and the Notion of Ostension Shared Intentionality Conclusion Cross-References References Intentionality Test Interactionist Theory Interbirth Interval Definition IBI in Life history theory IBI in mammals Cross-References References Interbrood Conflict Interchange Intercommunity Aggression Interconnected Structure Interconnected System Interference Proactive Interference in Pigeon and Monkey Same/Different Tasks Pigeons: Time-Based Proactive Interference Monkeys: Event-Based Proactive Interference Interference in List Memory Tasks Cross-References References Intergenic Synonyms Definition Introduction Genic Versus Intergenic Region Genome Architecture and Intergenic Region Functions of Intergenic Regions Conclusion Cross-References References Intergenic Complementation Intergroup Violence Intermediate Phenotype Intermittent Reinforcement Internal Clocks Definitions Hourglass Clocks Embryogenesis and the Developmental Clock Epigenetic Clock and Aging Correlation Seasonal Hourglass Clocks Oscillatory Clocks The Circadian Clock Infradian/Lunar, Semilunar and Tidal Clocks Infradian/Seasonal Clocks Ultradian Clocks Sleep and Interval Timing Clocks and Disease Cross-References References Internal Fertilization References Interpretation Bias Intersexual Differences Intersexual Selection Introduction Sexual Conflict Theories on Evolution Sex-Biased Gene Expression Sexual Dimorphism Cross-References References Interspecific Brood Parasitism Definition Introduction Taxonomy of IBP IBP Evolution and Coevolution Adaptations and Counter-Adaptations Through Coevolutionary Stages The Pre-laying Stage The Egg Stage The Nestling Stage The Fledgling Stage Conclusion Cross-References References Interspecific Group Interstimulus Interval (ISI) Cross-References References Interval Timing Synonyms Definition Introduction Temporal Ranges Timing Tasks and Properties Psychological Processes Interval Timing Models Neural Mechanisms Conclusion Cross-References References Intervening Variables Definition Introduction Distinguishing Intervening Variables from Other Unobservable Concepts Conclusion Cross-References References Intimate Partner Violence Intolerance Intrabrood Conflict Intragenic Complementation Intragroup Intraparietal Sulcus Introduction Intraparietal Sulcus in Macaques Neurological Connection of Intraparietal Sulcus Functional Imaging for Intraparietal Sulcus Clinical Correlates for Sulcus References Intra-sexual Competition Intra-sexual Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Competition Alternative Mating Strategies Sperm Competition Consequences on Female Fitness Consequences on Male Fitness Sexual Selection in Human Perspective Conclusion Cross-References References Intromission Synonyms Definition Fertilization through Intromission Cross-References References Intron Synonyms Definition Introduction Size of Introns Types of Introns Conclusion Cross-References References Introspection Intuition Intuitive Physics Invention Inversion Effects Synonyms Definition Introduction Role of Inversion Inversions and Drosophila Inversions and Human Cross-References References Invertebrate Cognition Invertebrate Food Habits Invertebrate Forage Invertebrates Invisible Displacement Synonyms Definition Introduction Testing Methodology Standard Piagetian Task Rotation Transposition Invisible Displacement in Animals Conclusion Cross-References References IQ Introduction Intelligence and Intelligence Testing (IQ) in Humans Intelligence in Nonhuman Animals What is the Latent Factor that Regulates Intelligence? Conclusion Cross-References References Irene M. Pepperberg, PhD Research Interests Early Life, Educational Background Professional Career Cross-References References Isocortex Ivan Pavlov Definition Introduction Early Life and Career Pavlov´s Contributions to Psychology Pavlov´s Legacy: Scientific Contributions, Contemporary Research, and Political Influence Scientific Contributions Contemporary Research Political Influence Summary Cross-References References J J Bruce Overmier Cross-References References J.E.R. Staddon Personal History Brief Overview of Staddon´s Work A Simple Example of Staddon´s Modeling Approach: Habituation Cross-References References Jane Goodall Definition Introduction Personal Life Research Conservation Work Conclusion Cross-References References Jealousy Synonyms Definition Introduction Adaptive Value Pet Owner Surveys Experimental Work Neurobiology of Emotion Cross-References References Jean Baptiste Lamarck Synonyms Definition Introduction Biography Lamarckism Lamarck´s Theory Proponent Lamarckism and Single-Celled Organisms Lamarckism and Inheritance of Acquired Artistic and Spiritual Characteristics Conclusion Cross-References References Jeff Bitterman Johannes Müller Introduction Handbuch der Physiologie des Menchen The Law of Specific Nerve Energies Other Accomplishments by Müller Physiology Embryology Neurophysiology and Neurology Müller´s Students and the Issue of Vitalism ``Vitalism: The Best and the Worst´´ Cross-References References John B. Watson Introduction Behaviorism Consciousness? Reactions to Watson´s Behaviorism Mary Calkins Understood Pattern Reactions Embodiment Thinking Silent Problem Solving Other Thinkers Psychoanalysis Psychopathology Advertising and More Remembered by His Son Cross-References References John Bowlby Introduction Early Life Education and Clinical Experience Development of Attachment Theory Core Tenants of Attachment Theory Collaboration with Mary Ainsworth and the Assessment of Attachment Ethological and Comparative Psychology Influences on Bowlby´s Work Contributions to the Study of Animal Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References John David Smith Cross-References References John James Audubon Introduction Early Life and Background Bird Banding Vulture Study Professional Career Cross-References References Chapters Joint Attention Synonyms Introduction Joint Attention and Language Development Joint Attention Across Species Initiating Behavior Regulation (IBR) Responding to Joint Attention (RJA) Initiating Joint Attention (IJA) Conclusions References Joint Visual Attention Jonathon Crystal Introduction Biographical Information and Career History Contributions to Science Animal Model of What-Where-when Memory Animal Model of Source Memory Animal Model of Prospective Memory Other Models of Memory Contributions to Timing Literature Collaborators Cross-References References Josep Call Synonyms Curriculum Vitae Scientific Achievements Cross-References References Journey Joystick Cross-References References Judgment Bias Synonyms Definition Introduction Measuring Judgment Bias in Animals Discrimination Training Judgment Bias Testing Advantages of Judgment Bias Tasks for Animals Limitations to Judgment Bias Tasks for Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Junk DNA Junk RNA Justice Juvenescence Juvenile Period Juvenilization K Kainozoic Era Kangaroo Method Introduction Components of KMC The Need for KMC Administration of KMC Precautions During KMC Advantages of KMC Cross-References References Kanzi Early Findings Reference Semantic Combinations Syntactic Comprehension: Ape and Child Error Types: Alia and Kanzi Biology and Language Declarative Communication Other Skills/Studies Cross-References References Karen Hollis Cross-References References Karyotype Synonyms Definition Introduction Understanding Karyotype Preparing a Karyotype Chromosome Staining-Banding Techniques Classification of Chromosomes for Karyotyping Application of Karyotype Cross-References References Kendall´s Compound B Kenneth Spence Personal History Contributions Cross-References References Ketone Definition Introduction Naming Ketones Physical Properties Ketosis Conclusion Cross-References References Kin Selection Kinesis Kinship Knockout Genes Strategies for Generating Gene-Knockout Site-Directed Mutagenesis and Gene Targeting in Embryonic Stem Cells (Homologous Recombination) Site-Specific Nucleases as Tools for Gene Knockout Zinc Finger Nucleases TALENs (Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases) CRISPR/Cas9 (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats Associated Nuclease Cas9) Applications of Gene Knockout Technology Gene Editing and Human Health Use of Gene Knockout in Biomedical Research Cross-References References Knowing Knuckle-Walking Definition Distribution Mechanics and Functional Variation Morphological Correlates Implications for Human Evolution Cross-References References Konrad Lorenz Definitions The Genesis of a Genius Observer: A Commented Chronology Achievements: What Remained and What Did Not Cross-References Acknowledgment References K-Reproductive Strategy Definition Origin of the Concept Cross-References References Kyoto Introduction Kinji Imanishi (1902-1992) The Primate Research Institute at Kyoto University Ai Project Activities for Chimpanzee Conservation Wildlife Research Center at Kyoto University Cross-References References L Laboratory Research Federal Oversight Public Transparency Nongovernmental Oversight Local Oversight IACUC Protocol Review Criteria References Lactogen Lactogenic Hormone Ladder of Being Lagomorpha Diet Introduction Digestive Morphology Teeth Diet Conclusion Cross-References References Lagomorpha Life History Synonyms Definition Introduction Hares Rabbits Pikas Cross-References References Lagomorpha Locomotion Synonyms Definition Gait Sequences Limb Loading Locomotor Kinematics Locomotor and Respiratory Coupling Opportunity for Bioinspiration Conclusion Cross-References References Lagomorpha Navigation Synonyms Definition Introduction Hares Rabbits Pikas Conclusion Cross-References References Lamarkism Land Animals Land Fowl Gait Landmark Definition Introduction Classic Studies of Landmark Use Tinbergen´s Wasps Rats in a Water Maze Piloting by Landmarks When and Which Landmarks to Use Using Multiple Landmarks Competition Between Landmarks Landmark Arrays: Absolute Versus Relational Learning How Landmarks Are Used to Guide Search Conclusions Cross-References References Landmarks Language What Is Communication? What Is a Language? Written Language and Its Role in Human History Acquisition of Spoken Language Language and the Brain Communication in Ways Other than Spoken or Written Language Language as a Dynamic Entity Central to Culture Cross-References References Language Acquisition Device Language Research Center Computerized Test System (LRC-CTS) Language Research: Dolphins Introduction Research on the Referring Function of Dolphin Signature Whistles Research on the Comprehension of Sentences Within an Artificial Language System The Dolphin´s Understanding of Imperative Sentences The Dolphins´ Responses to Lexically Novel Sentences The Dolphin´s Responses to Structurally Novel Sentences The Dolphin´s Responses to Anomalous Sentences The Dolphin´s Responses to Sentences Referring to Objects Displaced in Space and Time The Dolphin´s Responses to Interrogative Sentences About the Presence of Objects in Her Pool The Dolphin´s Understanding of References to an Individual Whose Behavior It Should Copy Research on Artificial Symbol Production Conclusions Cross-References References Language Research: Great Apes Definition Introduction Spoken Language Unnamed Orangutan Gua Viki Signed Language Washoe Pili, Moja, Dar, Tatu; Loulis Nim Koko, Michael Chantek Visuo-Symbolic Language Sarah Lana Ai Sherman and Austin Kanzi Panbanisha and Panzee Criticism Conclusion Cross-References References Language Research: Parrots Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Parrots? Irene Pepperberg´s Studies with Alex the Parrot Other Subjects Implications and Similarities to Other Species Controversy and Limitations of Parrot Language Studies Conclusion Cross-References References Last Common Ancestor Synonyms Cross-References References Latent Inhibition Background Conditions for Latent Inhibition Theories of Latent Inhibition Relevance Cross-References References Latent Learning Synonyms Background Cross-References References Lateral Intraparietal Area Lateral Intraparietal Region (LIP) Synonyms LIP: A Dorsal Stream Region Anatomy Visual Orienting Other Functions Conclusion Cross-References References Laterality (Handedness) Synonyms Definitions Introduction Cerebral Asymmetry Cross-References References Laterality Effect (Face Perception) Laterality Effects: Humans Right-Hemisphere Dominance of Human Face Processing Origins of Hemispheric Differences Hemispheric Specialization Laterality Effects: Animals Primates Nonprimates Summary Cross-References Acknowledgment References Lateralization Latrine Laurie Santos Cross-References References Law of Effect Synonyms Definition Introduction The Origin: The Puzzle Boxes Implications Cross-References References Law of Independent Assortment Law of the First Wave Front Learned Affordances References Learned Helplessness Cross-References References Learning Synonyms Ordinary-English Meanings Two Families of Learning Notions in Psychology Purely Nonbehavioral Notions Why Prefer Purely Nonbehavioral Notions? In Sum Subfamilies Cross-References References Learning Set Formation Learning Theory Learning to Learn Synonyms Definition Introduction Gregory Bateson (1904-1980) and Deutero-Learning Harry Harlow (1905-1981) ``The Formation of Learning Sets´´ The ``Evolution´´ for Harlow of the Concept of Learning Set Formation A Failed Application of LSF LSF´s Place Among Other Learning Processes Thomas´s Learning-Intelligence Hierarchy Concluding Remarks Cross-References References Learning-Set Paradigm Lemur Lemur, Tarsier, New World and Old World Monkey, and Ape Locomotion Leporid Lesley J. Rogers Early Life and Educational Background of Professor Lesley J. Rogers BSc (Hons), DPhil, DSc, FAA Professional Career Research Contributions References Leslie Matrix Lessening Lesser Ape Levallois Technique Cross-References References Lexigrams Synonyms Definition Introduction Development Design Constraint Unequivocal Meaning English Translation Animal Language Research Kanzi Sofia Human Augmentative and Alternative Modes of Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Lexigraph Libido Life Cycle Life Expectancy Life History Introduction Fitness and Life History Trade-Offs The Trade-Off Between Growth and Reproduction The Trade-Off Between Current Reproduction and Survival The Trade-Off Between Offspring Quantity and Quality Life History Trade-Offs and the Evolution of Viviparity and Parental Care Life History Trade-Offs in Semelparous and Iteroparous Reproductive Strategies Acquisition and Allocation of Resources in Life History Trade-Offs Mechanisms of Life History Evolution Life History and Behaviors Conclusion Cross-References References Life History Strategies Life History Trade-Offs Life History Traits Life Table Lifespan Lifestyle Lifetime Expectancy Synonyms Definition Introduction Life History, Biological Time, and the Pace of Life Extrinsic Factors Intrinsic Factors: Rate-of-Living and Rate-of-Aging Resilience to Aging Conclusion Cross-References References Lifetime Reproductive Success Light/Dark Cycle Definition Concept, Implications and Applications Cross-References References Limb Phase Linear Egocentric Spatial Information Linear Perspective Lingual Bone Linkage Analysis Introduction Description Basic Concepts Genetic Recombination, Linked Genes, Genetic Distance, and Physical Distance Recombination Frequency as a Consequence of Genetic Distance Between Two Loci Determination of the Relative Distance of Three Gene Loci Using Recombinant Frequency LOD Scores Method Analysis Linkage Analysis Testing Procedures and Software Programs Applications Advantages and Drawbacks Conclusion Cross-References References Linkage Maps Lipid Synonyms Definition Introduction Classification of Lipids Fatty Acids Saturated Fatty Acid Unsaturated Fatty Acid Essential Fatty Acids Melting Point of Fatty Acids Triacylglycerol (Lipid Droplets) Phosphoglycerides Eicosanoid Metabolism of Lipids Biosynthesis of Lipids Catabolism of Lipids Functions of Lipid Diseases Conclusions Cross-References References List Memory Effects (Primacy and Recency) Visual List Memory What the Delay Changes Reveal About Memory Visual List-Memory Conclusions Auditory List Memory of Rhesus Monkeys Inhibition Effects in Auditory List Memory Theoretical Implications of Visual and Auditory List Memory References Lithic Technology Little Brain Livestock Feed Lizards and Snakes Local Bias Local Geometry Locomotion Synonyms Definition Introduction Goals of Animal Locomotion Self-Preservation Finding and Securing Mates Ensuring Offspring Survival Molecular Motors Cilia and Flagella Myosin II Cellular Motors Muscles Skeletal Muscle Structure Additional Function of Muscles during Locomotion Muscle Contraction Neural Control of Locomotion Central Pattern Generators Locomotor Gaits Sensory Feedback Physical Variables Influencing Locomotion Environment Stability and Maneuverability Energetics of Locomotion Size and Reynolds Numbers Survey of Locomotor Forms Aquatic Locomotion Terrestrial Locomotion Aerial Locomotion Cross-References References Locus Synonyms Definition Introduction Pleiotropy and Complex Traits Recombination and Linkage Disequilibrium Mapping Gene Loci Nomenclature Cross-References References LOD Score Synonyms Definition Introduction How to Calculate LOD Score Conclusion Cross-References References Log of Odds Logarithm (Base 10) of Odds Long Interspersed Nuclear Elements Long-Delay Conditioning Longevity Long-Lasting Strengthening Long-Term Memory Synonyms Definition of Long-Term Memory What Is Remembered? What Is Forgotten? Long-Term Social Memory: An Evolutionary and Ecologically Relevant Test of Comparative Cognition Cross-References References Long-Term Potentiation Synonyms Definition Introduction Neuroanatomy of Hippocampus Properties of LTP in CA3-CA1 Region Mechanism of LTP in CA1 Region Maintenance of LTP Can LTP Be Termed as Memory Formation? Cross-References References Long-Time Acquaintance Loris Loss of Care Louis Leakey Personal Life Works Other Works Legacy Cross-References References Louis M. Herman Introduction Background, Education, and Early Career Directions Founding the First Laboratory Fully Devoted to Dolphin Cognition Dolphin Sensory Perception and Cross-Modal Abilities Dolphin Rule Learning and Concept Formation Dolphin Memory Abilities and Processes Dolphin Imitative Abilities Studies of Dolphin Social Awareness and Self-Awareness Studies of the Interpretation of Television Displays Studies of Comprehension of Sentences by Dolphins Field Studies of Humpback Whale Behavior Conclusions Cross-References References Lowering Lower-Level Representation Lucky Finding Lucy Synonyms Definition Introduction Bipedalism Ecology Intelligence and Social Structure Conclusion Cross-References References Ludwig Huber Personal History and Overview of Research Cross-References References Lunate Sulcus Introduction History and Evolution Shapes of the Lunate Sulcus References Lung Luteotropic Hormone Luteotropin Lying M Machiavellian Intelligence Synonyms Definition Introduction Testing the MI Hypothesis What Is Social Complexity? Conclusion Cross-References References Machine Learning Machine Thinking Magnetic Magnetoreception Major Histocompatibility Complex Synonyms Definition Mouse and Human MHC’Loci Inheritance of Alleles of MHC Genes in Linked Groups MHC Molecules Class I’MHC Class II’MHC MHC„-Peptide„ Interaction Conclusion Cross-References References Make-up Maladaptive Behavior Male Androphilia Male Gametogenesis Male Hormone Male Sexual Orientation Male Sexual Refractory Period Male-Male Competition/Combat Mammal Mammotropin Mammuthus primigenius Manager Manatee Manatee Diet Manatee Movement Manipulator Map Unit Margaret Floy Washburn Cross-References References Margaret Ruth Kuenne Harlow Cross-References References Mark Test, The Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Marriage Marsupial Cognition Introduction What Is Cognition? On Neuroanatomical Differences with Placentals On Perception Vision Audition and Vocalization Olfaction Cognition in Marsupials Exploration and Problem„-Solving„ Conditioning and Learning Lateralization Avoidance Learning and Generalization Social Cognition and’Play Conclusion Cross-References References Marsupial’Diet Synonyms Introduction Diet Strategies Dasyuromorphia Notoryctemorphia Microbiotheria Paucituberculata Didelphimorphia Peramelemorphia Diprotodontia Petauridae Phalangeridae Hypsiprymnodontidae Potoroidae Macropodidae Vombatidae Phascolarctidae Conclusions Cross-References References Marsupial Gaits Marsupial Life History Definition Introduction Reproduction Mating Parental’Care Growth Survival Longevity Predation Conclusions References Marsupial Locomotion Synonyms Definition Terrestrial Locomotion Arboreal Locomotion Gliding Swimming Conclusion Cross-References References Marsupial Morphology Definition Introduction Morphological Design/General Morphology Skull Skeleton Ameridelphia Morphology Australidelphia Morphology Dasyuromorphia Diprotodontia Microbiotheria Notoryctemorphia Peramelemorphia Dentition Ameridelphia Australidelphia Dasyuromorphia Diprotodontia Microbiotheria Notoryctemorphia Peramelemorphia Reproductive System and Biology Pouches Neonates Conclusions Cross-References References„ Martens Martha Alice Helson Martha Helson Warren Martha Helson Wilson Synonyms Personal and Professional History Selected Significant Accomplishments Cross-References References„ Martin Daly and Margo Wilson Synonyms Definitions Cross-References References Masseter Muscle Synonyms Introduction: The Muscle and Its Fascia Relations of Masseter Vascular Supply of Masseter Nerve Supply of Masseter Action of Masseter Applied Anatomy Cross-References References Mastering Matched Countersinging Matching-to-Sample Matching„-to„-Sample„: Comparative Overview Synonyms Introduction Variations of the DMS’Task Matching„-to„-Sample„ Tasks and Comparative Cognition Matching„-to„-Sample„ Tasks and Behavioral Neuroscience Conclusions Cross-References References Mate Choice Mate Guard Mate Guarding Synonyms Antonyms Definition Evolutionary Context Female Mate Guarding Cooperative Mate Guarding Precopulatory Mate Guarding Postcopulatory Mate Guarding Mate Guarding and Sexual Conflict Mate Guarding and Hormones Mate Guarding and The Evolution of Male Alternative Strategy Mate Guarding Examples Among’Taxa Asexual Reproductive Animals Hermaphrodites and Aquatic/Sea Animals Invertebrates Cephalopoda Insects Vertebrates Amphibians “Reptilians” Mammals Birds Conclusions Cross-References References„ Mate Protection Mate Provisioning Synonyms Definition Nuptial’Gifts Protection Cross-References References Mate-Finding Mate-Guarding Material Culture Maternal Behavior„ Synonyms Definition Introduction Types Neurobiology Behind Maternal Behavior Endocrinology Stress Diet Animals in Focus Domestic Sheep Cattle Wild Orangutan Old„-World„ Monkey Conclusion Cross-References References Maternal Immune Hypothesis Mathematical Modeling Mating Introduction Mating System Plant Mating System„ Microorganism Mating System Animal Mating System Human Mating System Sexual Selection Sexual Selection Induced Variance in Reproductive Success Sexual Selection in the Reproductive Fitness Mechanism of Sexual Selection Sexual Conflict Different Types of Sexual Conflict Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References„ Mating Effort Synonyms Definition Intrasexual Competition Sperm Competition Cross-References References Matrilines and Patrilines Definition Social Organization via the Matriline Social Organization via the Patriline Conclusion Cross-References References Matutinal (Active at Dawn) Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Maximal Longevity Means-End Behavior Means„-End„ Reasoning Synonyms Definition Introduction Means„-End„ Reasoning in Human and Nonhuman Animals Do Nonhuman Animals Really Perform „Means„-End„ Reasoning? Conclusions Cross-References Reference Means-End Understanding Meat-Eater Mechanoreceptors Introduction Evolution of Mechanoreceptors Vertebrates Aquatic Vertebrates Invertebrates Conclusion Cross-References References Mechanosensation Medial Entorhinal Area (MEA) Synonyms Definition Introduction Current Knowledge Cross-References References Medial Entorhinal Cortex (MEC) Medial Striatum Synonyms„ Background Anatomy Function Dysfunction Cross-References References Medial Temporal Lobe Structure and Connectivity The Role of MTL on Memory Processes Spatial Navigation Amygdala Cross-References References Medulla Oblongata Synonyms Definition Introduction Development Anatomical Structure External Anatomical Features Anterior Medulla Lateral Medulla Posterior Medulla Internal Anatomy Spinal „Cord„-Medulla„ Transition Level of Decussation of Pyramids Level of the Sensory Decussation Level of the Olivary Nucleus Rostral Medulla and „Pons„-Medulla„ Junction Ascending Tracts Dorsal Column Tracts Spinothalamic Tracts Spinoreticular Tracts Spinal Trigeminal’Tract Spinocerebellar Tracts Cranial Nerve and Nerve Nuclei Facial’Nerve Glossopharyngeal’Nerve Vagus’Nerve Accessory’Nerve Hypoglossal’Nerve Spinal Trigeminal’Tract Descending Tracts Corticospinal’Tract Corticobulbar’Tract Medial Forebrain Bundle Vestibulospinal’Tract Rubrospinal’Tract Reticulospinal’Tract Tectospinal’Tract Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus Vasculature Function Physiological Functions Disorders Conclusion Cross-References References Megabat Locomotion Megachiroptera Locomotion Synonyms Definition Flight Biomechanics Terrestrial Walking, Suspensory Walking, and Climbing Bioinspiration Conclusion Cross-References References Megachiroptera Sensory Systems Definition Introduction Audition Vision Olfaction Conclusion Cross-References References Melanin Introduction Types and Distribution of Melanin Melanogenesis Melanin and the Iris Color Albinism Fungal Melanin Cephalopod’Ink Cross-References References Membrane Lipid Memory Memory Awareness Memory Cells Memory Interference Mendel’s Law Mendel’s’Laws Synonyms Definition Introduction First Law: Law of Dominance Second Law: Law of segregation Third Law: Law of Independent Assortment Conclusion Cross-References References Mendelian Crosses Synonyms Definition Introduction Monohybrid Crosses Outcome of Monohybrid Crosses Di„-hybrid„ Crosses Discussion References Mendelian Inheritance Mental Abilities Mental Capacities Mental Disorders Mental Functions Mental Image Mental Processes Mental Time Travel Mesocortex Messages Messenger RNA Synonyms Definition Introduction Messenger RNA Structure 5′ Cap Coding Regions Untranslated Regions (5′ UTR and 3′ UTR) Poly(A) Tail Monocistronic Versus Polycistronic mRNA Processing and Function Transcription Eukaryotic Pre-mRNA Processing Transport Translation Degradation Applications of mRNA Conclusion Cross-References References Meta-cognition Cross-References References Metacommunication Synonyms Cross-References References Metamemory„ Synonyms Definition What Is Metamemory? Assessing Metamemory in Animals Metamemory in’Apes Metamemory in Monkeys Metamemory in „Non„-Primate„ Species Controversies in Studying Metamemory in Animals Conclusion and Implications Cross-References References Metatherian Metatherian Locomotion Methylation Definition Introduction DNA Methylation Protein Methylation Cross-References References Michael Domjan Biography Early Work on Conditioned Taste Aversion Conditioned Sexual Behavior Other Contributions and New Directions Cross-References References Michael J. Beran Early Life and Educational Background Professional Career Research Interests Cross-References References Michael Tomasello Introduction Biography Conclusion Cross-References References Microarray Synonyms Why Do We Need a Microarray?„ What Is a Microarray? How Does a Microarray Work? History of Microarray Types of Microarray Model Workflow of a Microarray Experiment: One-Channel Versus Two-Channel Detection Applications of Microarray Alternate Formats Synthesis of Microarrays Future of Microarray Cross-References References„ Microchiroptera Cognition Definition Introduction Active Perception Individual Variability in Perceptual Strategies Associative Learning Social and Observational Learning Memory Conclusion Cross-References References Microchiroptera’Diet Introduction Dietary Categories Insectivores Carnivores Piscivores Frugivores Nectarivores Sanguivores Morphological Characterization Ecological Importance Cross-References References Microchiroptera Life History Synonyms Definition Introduction Microchiroptera x Megachiroptera Natural History Life History Social Systems Mating Systems Sexual Dimorphism and Mating Displays Reproduction Lactation and Parental’Care Age Estimation Thermoregulation Challenges and Postnatal Growth Torpor and Hibernation Migration Lifespan Conclusion Cross-References References Microchiroptera Locomotion Introduction Aerial Locomotion The Wing Structure and Morphology Aerodynamics„ Skeleton and Musculature Adaptations to Flight Quadrupedal Locomotion Morphological Adaptations in Quadrupedal’Bats Cross-References References Microchiroptera Morphology Introduction External Morphology Skeleton Families Characterization Functional Morphology Cross-References References„ Microchiroptera Sensory Systems Definition Introduction Audition Anatomy Hearing Sensitivity Detection and Identification of Echoes Localization of Echoes Vestibular Sensing Vision Olfaction Conclusion Cross-References References Microchiropteran Communication Definition Introduction Acoustic Communication Conflict Resolution Mating Social Integration Neurobiology of Acoustic Communication Olfactory Communication Visual Communication Tactile Communication Cross-References References MicroRNA Definition Introduction Biogenesis of miRNAs Cross-References References„ Microsatellite Marker Synonyms Definition Introduction Location and Structure of Microsatellite Features of Microsatellite Marker Origin of Microsatellite Type of Microsatellite Markers Application of the Microsatellite Marker Limitations of Microsatellite Markers Perspectives Conclusion References„ Microsatellites Migration Synonyms Alternative Words„ Introduction Definition General Description Types of Migration Factors Influencing Migration In Birds In Fishes Migratory Behavior Vertical Migrations Migration Route Migratory Pattern in Atlantic Herrings Conservation Status: Least Concern „(LC) Conclusion Cross-References References„ Mimicking Mimicry Vocal Mimicry in Birds Functions of Vocal Mimicry Vocal Mimicry and Cognition Cross-References References„ Mind Mind Reader Mind-Body Problem Mind-Brain Problem Miniaturization What Is Miniaturization? The Lowest Limits of’Size Morphological Consequences of Miniaturization The Role of Heterochrony in Miniaturization Miniaturization in Vertebrates Cross-References References„ Minority Advantage Mirounga angustirostris Mirounga leonina Miroungini Mirounga Mirror Recognition Mirror Self„-Recognition„ Synonyms Definition Introduction MSR in Nonhuman Primates MSR in Dolphins MSR in Elephants MSR in Avian Species Controversy Regarding MSR Research Conclusion Cross-References References„ Misidentification Mismatch Hypothesis Mitochondrial DNA Synonyms Definition Introduction Need for Mitochondrial DNA Structure of mtDNA mtDNA Inheritance mtDNA Replication Regulating mtDNA Copy Number Conclusion Cross-References References Mitosis Synonyms Definition History„ Stages of Mitosis Karyokinesis Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis Mitosis„-Related„ Abnormalities Significance of Mitosis Conclusion References„ Mixed Species Group Mnemonic Mnemonic Device Mobility Modal Action Pattern Modal Action Pattern (MAP) Modal Action Patterns Modality Model Fitting Synonyms Definition Introduction„ Mathematical Models of Behavior„ Game Theory Matching Law Modeling Individual Animal Behavior Modeling Collective Animal Behavior Collective Behavior of Corpse Clustering in Ants Modeling and Its Rationale, Difficulties, and Possible Solutions Flaws in Study of Animal Behavior and Thus the Models Proposed Cross-References References Modelling Moderate Behavior Modern Human Modern Synthesis Synonyms Definition Introduction„ Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution Aspects of Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution Recombination or Variation Mutation Heredity Natural Selection Reproductive Isolation Significance of Developmental Biology in Modern Synthesis The Extended Synthesis Cross-References References„ Modern Synthetic Theory Modification Modular Cognition Mole, Hedgehog, or Shrew Locomotion Molecular Marker Molecular Scissors Mollusca Mollusk Synonyms Definition Etymology Present Taxonomical Status Habit, Habitat, and Ecological Importance Mantle and Mantle Cavity Shell Foot Feeding and Digestion Respiration Nervous System and Organs of Sensation Circulatory System Excretory System Reproduction Classification of Phylum Mollusca Some Extinct Groups of Mollusks The Fossil Records Cross-References References„ Mollusk Cognition Molting Synonyms Definition Introduction Molting and Molt Phases Molting Hormones and Behavior Molting and Predator Avoidance Molting and Feeding Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References„ Monitor Monkey Monkeys Monochorionic Dizygotic Twins Monocular Depth Cues Monocular Vision Monogamy Synonyms Definition What Constitutes Monogamy? Distribution and Prevalence Evolutionary History Neurobiological Mechanisms Cross-References References Monophyletic Definition Introduction What are Characters and Character States in a Phylogenetic Systematic Context? Natural Groups of Species and Evolution Apomorphic and Plesiomorphic Character States in the Understanding of Natural Groups Monophyletic Versus Merophyletic Groups Cross-References Acknowledgment References Monotreme Sensory Systems Synonyms Introduction What Are Monotremes? Monotreme Electroreception Monotreme Somatosensation Integration of Electroreception and Somatosensation in the Cerebral Cortex Monotreme Olfaction Monotreme Audition Monotreme Vision Conclusions Cross-References References Monty Hall Dilemma Synonyms Introduction The Standard Monty Hall Dilemma The Psychology of the Monty Hall Dilemma Variations of the Monty Hall Dilemma The Comparative Psychology of the Monty Hall Dilemma Conclusion Cross-References References Monty Hall Problem Mood Morality Morgan’s Canon Synonyms Introduction„ Morgan’s Canon Misrepresentations of Morgan’s Canon Ockham’s Razor„ Hamilton’s Law of Parsimony Morgan’s View of Simplicity Was Morgan’s Canon Anti„-anthropomorphic„? Was Morgan’s Canon „Anti„-anecdotal„ and Anti„-Romanes„? How Morgan’s Canon Has Been Perceived by Historians of Psychology A History of Misrepresentation of Morgan’s Canon Stanley (1896, p.’541) Mills (1899, p.’271) Washburn (1908, p.’25) Holmes (1911, p.’159) Warden (1927, p.’155) Adams (1928, p.’241) Boring (1929, pp.’464–„465) Pillsbury (1929, p.’283) Flugel (1933, pp.’123–„124) Waters (1939, p.’534) Harriman (1947, pp.’225–„226, 255) Munn (1950, pp.’1–„2) Caldwell (1960, p.’401) Dewsbury (1973, p.’9) Dewsbury (1978, p.’10) Denny (1980, p.’4) Griffin (1981, p.’118) Boakes (1984, p.’40) Dewsbury (1984, p.’188) Epstein (1984, pp.’122–„123) Grier and Burk (1990, p.’52) Baenninger (1994, p.’805) Barrows (1995) Bekoff and Allen (1997, p.’326) Knoll (1997, p.’20) Macphail (1998, p.’80) Dewsbury (2000, p.’751) A History of Efforts to Correct the Misrepresentation of Morgan’s Canon Adams (1928, pp.’241–„242) Nagge (1932, pp.’492–„493) Newbury (1954, p.’73) Miller (1962, pp.’214–„215) Gray (1963, pp.’221–„222) Singer (1981, p.’268) Costall (1993, pp.’116–„117) Wozniak (1993, pp.’ix–x) Costall, Clark, and Wozniak (1997, p.’66) Costall (1998, p.’18) Thomas „(1998, p.’156) A Proper Approach to Use Morgan’s Canon A Modern Role for Morgan’s Canon? Simplicity in Philosophy Simplicity Aside: How to Approach Explanation in Animal Cognition Research Understanding Intervening Variables „(IVs) and Hypothetical Constructs „(HCs) The Brain and Intervening Variables „(IVs) Hazards of Emergentism in Psychological Science Concluding Remarks Cross-References References Morgan’s Principle Morphemes Morphology Synonyms Introduction„ Morphology Versus Anatomy Form and Function Basic Morphological Concepts Assessing Morphological Data: Fields of Study, Methods, and Techniques Morphology and Evolution Morphology and Systematics Cross-References References„ Morris Water Maze History and Application Cross-References References Morton Edward Bitterman Synonyms Personal and Professional History Professional Contributions Cross-References References„ Mosaic Brain Mosaic Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Mosaic Evolution History of the’Term Variant Meanings Mosaic Brain Evolution The Cerebral Cortex Mosaic Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References„ Mosaic Evolution Mosaicism Mosaics Synonyms Definition Introduction Genesis of Mosaics Somatic Mosaicism Germline Mosaicism Experimental Biology Conclusion Cross-References References Mother’s Behavior Mother-fetus Conflict Mother-Infant Bonding Motherless Primate Motion Motion Parallax Motion Perception Motivation Causality and Motivation: What Moves Behavior? Sexual Behavior: An Integrated Model for the Study of Motivation Sexual Differences in Reproductive Behavior Sexual Competition and Mate Choice The Role of Learning in Sexual Motivation Hormones, Sexual Motivation, and Ecology: The Case of Birds Conclusions Cross-References References Motivation Condition Motivational State Introduction„ Hunger Thirst Learning and Motivational States Behavior and Motivational States Summary Cross-References References Motor-Related Cells Movement Movement Patterns mRNA mtDNA Müllerian Mimicry Synonyms Definition Introduction Examples of Müllerian Mimicry Conclusion Cross-References References„ Multi-agent Systems Multiday Torpor Multigenic Effects Synonyms Definition Mendelian Inheritance Monogenic Traits Autosomal Dominant Inheritance Autosomal Recessive Inheritance X„-Linked„ Dominant Inheritance X„-Linked„ Recessive Inheritance Multigenic Traits Characteristics of a Multifactorial Disease The Threshold Model for Discontinuous „(Disease) Traits Liability Threshold’Model Genomic Approaches to Decipher Multifactorial Disorders Traditional Approaches New Approaches Genetic Counseling in Multifactorial Disorders Cross-References References Multigravida Multimodal Multimorbidity Multiparous Synonyms Definition Introduction Experienced Mothers Parity in Humans Cross-References References Multiple Gene Inheritance Multisensory Integration Muscle of Mastication Muscular System Definition Introduction Muscle Contraction Three Main Types of Muscle Tissue Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle Conclusion References Mustelid Communication Synonyms Introduction„ Olfactory Communication Acoustic Communication Visual Communication Multimodal Communication Conclusion Cross-References References„„ Mustelidae Cognition Introduction The Constraints of Form, Function, and Physiology on Cognition and Behavior Sensory Perception, Recognition, and Communication Eyes and Vision/Ophthalmoception Ears: Hearing/Audioreception Smell and Taste: Chemoreception Touch: Somatoception Diet and Foraging Behavior Collaborative Behaviors: Den Use, Parental Care, and Cooperative Defense Mutual Interactions Conclusion Cross-References References Mustelidae Diet Synonyms Introduction Strategies of Food Acquisition by Mustelids Variation in Feeding Habits within Mustelids Differences of the Diet between Size, Ages, and Sex of Mustelids Conclusion Cross-References References Mustelidae Life History Synonyms Introduction Body Size, Habitat, and Population Dynamics Life History Strategies Life History Tactics Delayed Implantation Conclusion Cross-References References„ Mustelidae Locomotion Synonyms Definition Introduction Aquatic Mustelids Terrestrial Mustelids Semiarboreal Mustelids Fossorial Mustelids Conclusions Cross-References References Mustelidae Morphology Introduction Coat Body Shape and Postcranial Skeleton Skull Morphology Teeth Sexual Dimorphism Cross-References References Mustelidae Navigation Synonyms Definition Introduction Sensory Modality of Navigation Territoriality Foraging Mate-Finding Dispersal Risk Minimization Conclusion Cross-References References Mustelids Musth Mutations Synonyms Introduction Types of Mutations Insertion Deletion Base Substitution Duplications, Inversions, and Translocations Missense Versus Nonsense Mutations Silent Mutation Mutagens Induced Mutations Spontaneous Mutations Hotspots Detection Conclusions Cross-References References Mutual Aid Mutualism Synonyms Definition Introduction„ Role of Mutualism Benefits of Mutualism Direct and Indirect Mutualism Direct Mutualism Symbiotic Mutualism Nonsymbiotic Mutualism Indirect Mutualism Types of Mutualism Trophic Mutualism: „Resource„-Resource„ Benefit Dispersive Mutualism: „Resource„-Service„ Benefit Defensive Mutualism: „Service„-Service„ Benefit The Evolution of Mutualism: Considering the Alternatives Cross-References References Myelencephalon Myelination Early Events in Myelination Myelination in CNS Myelination in PNS Conclusion Cross-References References N NAc NAcc Naïve Physics Napoleon Chagnon Synonyms Main Text Cross-References References Nash Equilibrium Synonyms Definition Introduction Normal Form Games Common Knowledge of Rationality Pure Strategies and Mixed Strategies Best Responses Nash Equilibria Examples Nash Equilibria in Pure Strategies Nash Equilibria in Mixed Strategies Nash´s Theorem Conclusion Cross-References References Nathan Emery Eye Gaze as a Complex Social Signal Role of the Amygdala in Primate Social Behavior Cache Protection Strategies as Social Cognition Convergent Evolution of Cognition Tasks for Testing Physical Cognition in Non-tool-Using Birds Cross-References References National Primate Research Centers (NPRCs) Nativist Theory of Language Development Natural Selection The Maturation of the Idea of Natural Selection The Theory of Evolution Through Natural Selection On the Tendency of Species to Form Varieties; And on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection ``Extract from an Unpublished Work on Species´´ (by Charles Darwin) ``Abstract of a Letter from C. Darwin to Prof. Asa Gray´´ (by Charles Darwin) ``On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type´´ (by Alfred Russel Wallace) The Mechanism of Natural Selection, as Proposed in On the Origin of Species Variation Inheritance Population Growth Differential Survival and Reproduction Types of Selection Alternatives of the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection The Modern Synthesis (the Neo-Darwinism) Central Contributors of the Modern Synthesis Differences Between the Modern Synthesis and Darwin´s Theory The Second Synthesis: Evolutionary Developmental Biology Social Darwinism Universal Darwinism Cross-References References Naturalistic Stimuli Synonyms Definition Introduction Cross-References References Nature Nature Versus Nurture Synonyms Definition Introduction Nature Nurture Nature-Nurture: Gene and Environment Gene Environment Interrelations between Nature and Nurture Conclusion Cross-References References Navigation Navigation by Honey Bees Definition Introduction Exploration Flights Homing Flights Route Following Place Communication Migration Concluding Remarks Cross-References Glossary References n-Back Task NCL Need Reduction Synonyms Cross-References References Need: Necessity Negative Reinforcement Definition Introduction Negative Reinforcement Antecedent Cue Contingent Consequences Negative Reinforcement and Punishment Extinction and Punishment Conclusion Cross-References References Neighbor-Stranger Discrimination Neocortex Synonyms Definition Laminar Structure Areal Structure Sensory Areas Motor Areas Cross-References References Neopallium Neophobia Definition Introduction Types of Neophobia and Brain Areas Involved in Neophobia Ecology Shapes Neophobia Experience Changes Neophobic Reactions Neophobia as Part of Personality Neophobia and Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Neoteny Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Neruogeneration Nerve Cell Nerve Cells Synonyms Definition Introduction General Structure Functions of Nerve Cells Classification of Nerve Cells Cross-References References Nerve Fiber Nervous System Nervous System Function Nervous System of Invertebrates Synonyms Neurons and the Nervous System Nervous Systems of Invertebrates Cross-References References Nervous System, The Synonyms Introduction Fundamental Units of the Nervous System Neurons Neuroglia or Glial Cells The Signal Transmission Between Neurons Embryonic Development of the Nervous System Evolutionary Origin of the Nervous System The Architecture of the Nervous System The Nervous System of Animals with Bilateral Symmetry Vertebrate Nervous System The Central Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System Closing Remarks Cross-References References Nest Building Nest Construction Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Nest Sharing Nesting of Sea Turtles Nesting Behavior Nesting Period Nest Construction Cross-References References Nests Neural Architecture Neural Circuit Neural Control of Behavior Introduction Methods for Study of Neural Regulation of Behavior Newer Methods Neurodevelopmental Basis of Behavior Common Neural Mechanisms in Complex Behaviors Perception-Cognition-Action Triad Prediction Signaling, Error, and Response Behavior-Induced Brain Plasticity and Vice Versa Role of Neurotransmitters, Neuromodulators, and Neurohormones Neural Basis of Sexually Dimorphic Behaviors Salient Brain Parts/Nervous System Components and their Affiliated Behaviors Cerebral Cortex: Supreme Controller of Animal Behavior Cortical Modularity-Based Cerebral Mechanisms Theory of Mind: A Basic Cortical Function in Social Behavior Hypothalamus: Master Regulator of Innate Behavior Hippocampus: A Memory Base for the Cognitive Flexibility and Social Behavior Basal Nuclei: A Tool for Selection of Appropriate Behavior Basal Nuclei: Basic Anatomy (In Brief) Cerebellum: A Prime Moderator for all Behavioral Actions Cerebellar Microanatomy (In Brief) Reticular Formation (RF): Center for the Generation of Consciousness, Arousal, and Behavioral Reflexes Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Prime Controller of Adaptive Behavior Emerging Behavioral Roles for Other Brain Parts and Nervous System Components Insula and ``Mirror Neurons´´: In Awareness of the Self-Action and That of Others Habenula: In Reward-Based Decisions and Adaptive Behavior Claustrum: In Unified Perception and Consciousness Enteric Nervous System (ENS): Mediator of the Gut-Motivated Behavior Behavior-Specific Neural Correlates Simple Behavior Limb Reflex Complex Behavior Emotional Behavior Reward-Driven Behavior Adaptive Behavior Miscellaneous: Love, Lust, Hate, Disgust, Religious/Ideological Fundamentalism, and Crowd Behavior Neural Basis of the Pathological Behaviors Cross-References References Neural Impulse Resting Membrane Potential Graded Potential Action Potential Cross-References References Neural Network Synonyms General Intuitive Initiation TCS Turing Machines The Imitation Game Logical Problems with TCS Connectionist Cognitive Science (CCS) NNs and UTMs Compared Some Fundamentals Learning as Automated Weight Search: The Perceptron CCS Vindicated: Backpropagation Concluding Remarks Cross-References References Neuroanatomical Plasticity Synonyms Definition Introduction Neurobiology of Structural Plasticity When Does Neuroanatomical Plasticity Occur? References Neuroanatomy Neurochemicals Neuroethics Neurogenesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Neurogenesis Conclusion References Neuron Synonyms Definition Introduction Neurogenesis and Maintenance Structure and Function of a Neuron Types of Neurons Circuits Cross-References References Neurons Neurosciences Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitters Synonyms Definition Synaptic Space and Neurotransmitter Mechanism Types of Neurotransmitters Classification of Neurotransmitters Biogenic Amines Neuropeptides Small Molecule Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitter Imbalance and Disorders Cross-References References Neutral New World Monkey New World Monkeys New World Monkeys Communication Newt Newton´s Third Law Synonyms Introduction Animal Locomotion Remarks Cross-References References Next Generation Sequencing Next-Generation Sequencing Nexus Niche Divergence Definition Introduction Causes of Niche Divergence Role of Niche Divergence in Speciation Conclusion Cross-References References Niciolous Nicola Clayton The Biography of Professor Nicola Clayton FRS Career History Research Contributions References Nidifugous Nikolaas Tinbergen Black-Headed Gulls Graylag Goose Herring Gull Chicks Stickleback Fish Digger Wasps: It Relates to the Landmark Use to Lay Eggs Cross-References References Nipple Attachment Nitrogenous Base NMDA Receptors Synonyms Definition Introduction NMDA Receptors Conclusion References NMDAR N-Methyl-d-aspartate Receptor Nomenclature Synonyms Definition Introduction Binominal Nomenclature Trinomial Nomenclature Author´s Name Cross-References References Nominal Fallacy Problems Solutions Conclusions References Nonassociative Learning Noncoding DNA Noncoding RNA Synonyms Definition Introduction Small Noncoding RNAs MicroRNAs PIWI-Interacting RNAs Small Nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) Small Nuclear Ribonucleic Acid (snRNA) Long Noncoding RNAs Natural Antisense Transcripts Transcribed-Ultraconserved Regions Long Intergenic ncRNAs (lincRNAs) Noncoding Pseudogenes Circular RNAs Conclusion Cross-References References Web References Nondisjunction Definition Introduction Forms of Nondisjunction Failure of Homologous Chromosome to Separate in Meiosis I Failure of Sister Chromatids to Separate in Meiosis II Failure of Sister Chromatids to Separate During Mitosis Nondisjunction Disorders Trisomy 18 Edward Syndrome Trisomy 21 Down Syndrome Trisomy 13 Patau Syndrome Sex Chromosome Disorders Klinefelter Syndrome Trisomy X Diagnosis Karyotyping Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis Polar Body Diagnosis Conclusion Cross-References References Nondisjunction of Chromosomes Nonentrained Non-homologous End Joining Nonhuman Nonhuman Intelligence Nonhuman Primates Non-match-to Sample Non-Mendelian Inheritance Non-motor Imitation Non-natural Meaning Nonrandom Mating Norm of Reaction Synonyms Origin of the Term Categorization and Special Cases Mechanisms Conceptualization Consequences for Evolution Behavioral Reaction Norm Norm of Reaction and Reproducibility Outlook Cross-References References Norma Basalis Norma Internalis Nourishment Novelty English Oxford Dictionary Cambridge Dictionary American Dictionary Cross-References References Nucleus Synonyms Definition Introduction Structure and Components of the Nucleus Nucleus Number Conclusion Cross-References References Nucleus Accumbens Synonyms Definition Introduction Nucleus Accumbens Conclusion References Nucleus Accumbens Septi Numerical Cognition Numerosity Cross-References References Nuptial Gift Definition Introduction Diversity of Nuptial Gifts Common Types of Nuptial Gift Effects on Fitness Conclusions Cross-References References Nut-Cracking Synonyms Introduction Gravity-Aided Nut-Cracking Tool-Aided Nut-Cracking Tool-Aided Nut-Cracking in Nonhuman Primates Conclusion Cross-References References Nutrients Definition Nutrients Nutrition, Health, and Disease Individuals with a Higher Risk of Getting Inadequate Intakes Individuals with Increased Demand for Nutrients Micronutrient´s Deficiency and Disease Nutritional Deficiencies in Animals Macronutrients and Disease Conclusion Cross-References References Nutrition O Oats Object Handing Object Movement Re-enactment Object Perception Object Permanence Definition Introduction Piagetian Stages of Object Permanence Stage 1: No Response to Objects Stage 2: Visually Tracking Objects Stage 3: Retrieving Partially Hidden Objects Stage 4: Retrieving Fully Hidden Objects Stage 5: Understanding of Multiple Visible Displacements Stage 6: Understanding of Invisible Displacements Standard Piagetian Task Transposition Task Rotation Task Task Comparisons Development of Object Permanence Adaptive Significance Visible Displacement Invisible Displacement Methodical Issues and Improvements Nonvisual Perception Olfactory and Auditory Cues Potential Influence of Other Senses Social Cues Associative Learning and Strategies Select the Occluder Manipulated by the Experimenter or Visited by the Displacement Device Select the Occluder Last Visited by the Displacement Device Select the First Occluder Visited by the Displacement Device Select the Occluder Adjacent to the Displacement Device Sensorimotor Incompetence Violation of Expectation Studies Violation of Object Continuity Violation of Object Constancy and Identity Violation of Object Solidity Conclusion Cross-References References Object Recognition Object Substitution Object-Assisted Problem-Solving Object-Choice Task Object-Choice Test Synonyms Methodological Variations in the Object-Choice Task Review of Species Tested Conclusion Cross-References References Objective Obligate Trait Definition Description Obligate Parasite Obligate Aerobe/Anaerobe Obligate Mutualism Cross-References References Obliterative Coloration Obliterative Shading Observational Conditioning References Observational Learning Observational Methods Introduction Events and States Rates and Frequency Sampling Rules Recording Rules Continuous Sampling Sequence Sampling Instantaneous Sampling One-Zero Sampling Advantages and Disadvantages of Time Sampling Sociometric Status Matrix Recording Medium Validity and Reliability Cross-References References Occipital Lobe Definition Introduction Visual Processing in the Occipital Lobe Damage to the Occipital Lobe Cross-References References Occlusion General Information Occlusion and Stroke Animal Models of Ischemic Stroke Involving Occlusion Other Forms of Occlusion Cross-References References Ocelli Ockham´s Razor Synonyms Definition Introduction Ockham´s Razor in Animal Cognition Implications Cross-References References Oddity Synonyms Introduction The Oddity Concept The Oddity Concept: Theoretical Considerations Hierarchies of Oddity Concept-Learning Problems Oddity Concept and Learning Set Formation Rats, Oddity, and LSF Concluding Remarks Cross-References References Oddity Concept Oddity Learning in the Rat Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Oddity Tasks Effects of the Number of Stimuli in Acquiring Oddity Concept Conclusion Cross-References References Oddity Problem Oddity Task Odds Ratio Definition Introduction Meaning of Odds How to Calculate the Odds Ratio? Application of Odds Ratio Cross-References References Odometry Cross-References References Odor Detection Odor Processing Odor Representation Oestrous Offensive Behavior Offspring Solicitation Behavior Old World Fruit Bat Locomotion Old World Monkey Old World Monkeys Older Brother Effect Olfaction Olfactory Olfactory Adaptation Olfactory Bulb Olfactory Discrimination Synonyms Definition Introduction Anatomy of Olfaction What Leads to Olfactory Discrimination? Purpose of Olfactory Discrimination Cross-References References Olfactory Epithelium Olfactory Perception Synonyms Definition Introduction Different Organs to Detect Odor Cues Different Behaviors to Convey Odor Molecules to Sensory Organs Different Modes of Perception to Represent the World A Complex Olfactory Environment A Twofold Perceptual Strategy Conclusion Cross-References References Olfactory Signals Oligonucleotides Oligos Omics Omission Training Omnivore Synonyms Definition Introduction Omnivorous Species Characteristics of Omnivores The Omnivore Diet The Dentition and Digestive System of the Omnivore Omnivory and Evolution Conclusion Cross-References References On the Origin of Species Ontogeny Cross-References References Open-Field Test Alternative Words or Phrases Not Included in the Title Synonyms Definition Introduction Usage of OFT Conclusion Cross-References References Openness Operant Box Operant Chamber Synonyms Definition Introduction Specifications Cross-References References Operant Cognitive Bias Operant Conditioning Synonyms Definition Introduction Key Concepts Experimental Design and Contingency Species and Materials Measuring Behavior The Three-Term Contingency Interaction with Other Learning Processes Reinforcement and Punishment Simple Schedules of Reinforcement Contingencies of Reinforcement Ratio Schedules Interval Schedules Other Simple Schedules Noncontingent Reinforcement, Induction, and Extinction Schedule Control and Feedback Functions Compound Schedules of Reinforcement Multiple and Mixed Schedules: Stimulus and Schedule Control Chained and Tandem Schedules: Conditioned Reinforcement Choice Behavior Concurrent Schedules The Matching Law Concurrent-Chains Schedules: Choosing Between Schedules Operant Conditioning and the Science of Behavior Complex Behavior Behavioral Mechanisms Conclusion Cross-References References Operant Conditioning Chamber Operant Judgment Bias Operational Sex Ratio (OSR) Definition Preface Introduction Working Definitions Is the OSR Usually Stable or Fluctuating? Factors that Influence the Operational Sex Ratio The Cognitive and Behavioral Consequences of Changes in OSR OSR Studies in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Opposable Thumb Synonyms Definition What is an Opposable Thumb? Opposable Thumb: A Definition Based on Anatomy and Behavior Conclusions Cross-References References Optic Flow Introduction The Relation of Optic Flow to Egomotion Cross-References References Optical Flattening Optimal Experience Optimal Foraging Theory OFT Model Components Decision Assumptions Currency Assumptions Constraint Assumptions Conventional Models of Optimal Foraging Theory The Prey Model The Patch Model Criticisms and New Concepts Cross-References References Optimal Group Size Cross-References References Order Sirenia Ordinal Position Ordinality Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Organ Transplant Organization Orgasm Physiology of Human Orgasm Types of Female Orgasm Evolutionary Origin of Orgasm Historical Cornerstones of Research on Human Orgasm Cross-References References Orientation Origin of Species Synonyms Definition Introduction History of Evolutionary Thought Content of the Book Reception of On the Origin of Species Conclusion Cross-References References Ornamentation Definition Introduction Sexual Selection Dynamics Selective Advantages and the Evolution of Ornaments Signal Honesty and the Costs of Ornamentation Conclusion Cross-References References Ornithischia Introduction Brain Endocasts and Encephalization Quotient (EQ) Functional Morphology Ornithischian Evolution Stegosauria Ankylosauria Ornithopoda Pachycephalosauria Ceratopsia Conclusion Cross-References References Ornithology Otters Outfit Ova Synonyms Definition The Female Gamete: A Highly Specialized Cell with Additional Components Female Responses and Behavior: Implications for Ova Form and Function Cross-References References Ovaries Introduction Main Text Conclusion References Overdominance Overdominance Hypothesis for Male Homosexuality Introduction Overdominance in Male Homosexuality Empirical Studies Population Dynamic Models Conclusion Cross-References References Overshadowing Definition Introduction Overshadowing: From Pavlov to Today Overshadowing Research: Phenomena and Models Acquisition-Focused Models Retrospective Revaluation and Counteraction of Overshadowing Performance-Focused Models and New Acquisition-Focused Models Conclusions Cross-References References Overt Attention Ovum Ovum (Singular) Owls Introduction Morphology and Perception Prey Territoriality Mating Parental Care Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Oxytocin Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of the Oxytocin System Structure of the Oxytocin System Actions in the Periphery and in the Brain Structure and Function of the Oxytocin Receptor Oxytocin and Behavior (I): Social Behavior in a Reproductive Context Sexual Behavior Maternal Care Pair Bonding Oxytocin and Behavior (II): Nonreproductive Social Affiliations Oxytocin and Neuropsychiatric Disorders in Humans OT: More Than Just a ``Pro-social´´ Hormone Conclusion: Future Directions Cross-References References P Packet Theory Introduction Packet Theory Evaluation and Extensions of Packet Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Paedomorphism Paedomorphosis Pain and Ethics of Animal Care and Use Synonyms Definition Introduction Painience as a Fundamental Neuroethical Criterion Ryder´s Painism Reconsidered Painience and Precautionary Conduct Pain Research Involving Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Painience Pair Bond Definition Introduction Social Versus Sexual Pair Bonds Evolutionary and Functional Origins of Pair Bonding Neuroendocrinology of Pair Bonding Development and Pair Bonds Conclusion Cross-References References Pair-Bonding Paired-Associated Learning Pair-Living Paleobiology of Dinosauria Introduction Cladistics and Evolution Saurischia Ornithischia Paleobiology Evolution of Dinosauria and Mesozoic Extinctions Discussion Cross-References References Paleontology History Preservation Evolution Diversification and Extinction Paleoecology Biostratigraphy Paleobiogeography Fossils in Mountain Belts Conclusion Cross-References References Panbanisha and Panzee Synonyms Cross-References References Pangolin Synonyms Definition Introduction Behavior and Ecology Lineage and Subspecies Conservation Status Concluding Remarks References Panpanzee Panthera Pantherinae Paradoxical Extinction Effects Parahippocampal Cortex (PHC) Synonyms Definition Introduction Structure Function Conclusion Cross-References References Parallel Distributed Processing Introduction Principles of PDP PDP as a Theory of Cognition Biological Plausibility Deep Learning Conclusions References Paralysis Agitans Paraphyletic Etymology Synonyms Definition Brief Historical Perspective Cross-References References Paraphyly Pareidolia Introduction Comparative Research Conclusion Cross-References References Parental Care Parental Investment Glossary of Terms Definition Introduction Behaviors Associated with Parental Investment Costs Associated with Investing in Offspring Trade-Offs Between Foraging and Investment Trade-Offs Between Predation Risk and Investment Trade-Offs Between Mate-Seeking and Investment Understanding Parental Investment from Tinbergen´s Perspective Proximate Questions: Ontogeny and Mechanisms Ultimate Questions: Function and Evolution Conclusion Cross-References References Parental Investment Theory Parenting Synonyms Definition Introduction Offspring-Caregiver Conflict Parental Investment Theory Parenting and Brain Development Transmission of Culture Alloparenting and the Kin Selection Hypothesis Parenting Styles Fathering Conclusions Cross-References References Parent-Offspring Conflict Parietal Lobe Definition Introduction The Parietal Lobe in the Human Brain Anatomy of the Parietal Lobe Functions of the Parietal Lobe The Parietal Lobe in the Nonhuman Primate Brain Anatomy of the Nonhuman Primate Parietal Lobe Functions of the Nonhuman Primate Parietal Lobe Cross-References References Parieto-occipital Areas Parieto-occipital Sulcus (POS) Synonyms Introduction Localization of Areas in the POs Functional Properties of Areas of POs: Visual Properties Area V2 Area V3 Area V6 Area V6A Functional Properties of Areas of POs: Properties Other Than Visual Conclusion Cross-References References Parkinson´s Disease Synonyms Definition Introduction Symptomatology Etiology Pathology Prevalence Assessment Treatment L-Dopa Glutamate Receptor Antagonists Dopamine Agonists COMT Inhibitors Deep Brain Stimulation Future Directions in Treatment Conclusion Cross-References References Parkinsonism Parous Parrot Cognition Parrot Locomotion Parsimony Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Parsimony? Examples Conclusion Cross-References References Parsing Parthenogenesis Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect Synonyms Definition Introduction The Discrimination Hypothesis The Frustration Theory The Sequential Theory Momentum Theory of Extinction Resistance Other Paradoxical Extinction Effects The Magnitude Reinforcement Extinction Effect (MREE) The Overtraining Extinction Effect Limitations Cross-References References Parturition Definition Parturition: A Complex Interplay of Various Physiological Processes Control of Parturition by Hormones, Paracrine, and Inflammatory Molecules Progesterone and Estrogen Oxytocin and Vasopressin Prostaglandins Adrenocorticotropin, CRH, and Cortisol Inflammatory Molecules Conclusion References Passerine Anatomy Passerine Cognition Definitions and Features How Many Are There Development of the Field of Avian (Passerine) Cognition Nonpasserine Avian Cognition Passerine Cognition Scientifically Acceptable Wish List of What Passerine Cognition Should Be Evidence-Based Research Evaluating Cognition Risks and Pitfalls in Cognitive Research Key Areas of Interest in Passerine Cognition Song and Vocal Learning The Brain Brain Weight as a Ratio of Body Weight Versus Neuron and Synaptic Density Neuron Counts Laterality and Cognition Ravens and Crows: A Special Case Studying Behavior: Passerine Cognition as a Graded System Nest Building Bower Building Use of Sticks and Implements Generally Laboratory Studies - Means-Ends Tests and Others Behavioral Evidence of Concepts of Past, Present, and Future Social Brain and Memory Cross-References References Passerine Life History Synonyms Definition Introduction Reproduction Mating Parental Care Brood Parasitism Growth Hatching and Neonate Size Patterns of Growth Maximum Size Feathers and Molt Survival Longevity Predation Movement Patterns Feeding Ecology Conclusion Cross-References References Passerine Locomotion Synonyms Definition Flight Biomechanics Migratory Patterns Bio-Inspiration Conclusion Cross-References References Passerine Morphology Synonyms Passerines Share Many Traits with Other Types of Birds Passerine Birds (Order Passeriformes) Unique Features of Passerine Morphology Variability of Passerine Morphology Variability in Beak Morphology Variability in the Pectoralis Muscle Variability in Hindlimb Morphology Variability in Wing Shape and Feather Size Variability in Behavior Passerine Success across Many Different Niches Cross-References References Passerine Navigation Definition Introduction Early Studies and Frameworks on Orientation Sun Navigation and the ``Map and Compass´´ Other Compass Mechanisms Compass Mechanism Interactions Conclusion Cross-References References Passerine Sensory Systems Definition Introduction Vision Hearing Somesthetic Senses Magnetoreception Olfaction Taste Conclusion Cross-References References Passerine Vocal Communication Definition Introduction Passerine Species Example Temperate Species Example Tropical Species Vocalization Types Structures and Perception Vocal Production Vocal Learning Conclusions Cross-References References Passive Avoidance Conditioning Passive Avoidance Learning Synonyms Definition Introduction Passive Avoidance Procedures Experimental Parameters Theories of Avoidance Learning Conclusion Cross-References References Paternal Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Role of Biogenetic Factors in Paternal Behavior Extent of Paternal Involvement Components of Paternal Involvement Paternal Behavior in Other Taxonomies Sensory Cues in Paternal Interactions Paternal Interactions Underlying Neural Circuits Role of Hormones in Paternal Behavior Influence of Paternal Behavior on Offspring Paternal Inheritance in Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Paternity Certainty Synonyms Definitions Introduction Factors that Influence Paternity Certainty Implications for Paternity Certainty Conclusion Cross-References References Paternity Uncertainty Pathogen Synonyms Definition Introduction Classification of Pathogens Pathogen-Host Interactions Characteristics and Strategies of Pathogens Establishing Infection: Invasion, Adhesion, and Colonization Damage to Host Cross-References References Patrick Bateson Cross-References References Patrolling Behavior in Chimpanzees Pattern Learning Synonyms Definition Introduction Sequence Organization Pattern Complexity Conclusion Cross-References References Paul Vasey Biographic Background Cross-References References Pavlovian Conditioned Approach Pavlovian Conditioning Pavlovian Inhibition PD Peak Fertility Synonyms Definition Introduction The Role of Neuroendocrine Regulation Peak Fertility and Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Peak Procedure Synonyms Definition Introduction Procedures and Examples Analysis and Interpretation of Response Times Averaged Peak Trials Single Peak Trials Experimental Studies of the Peak Procedure Conclusion Cross-References References Peak Reproduction Peak-Interval (PI) Procedure Peck Order Pecking Order Synonyms Definition Conclusion Cross-References References Pederasty Cross-References References Pedigree Introduction How to Construct a Pedigree? Pedigree Patterns Sporadic Inheritance Advantages of Pedigree Chart Summary Cross-References References Pedigree Mapping Pedigree Relatedness Penalty (Not Technical) Penguins: Behavioral Ecology and Vocal Communication Synonyms Life History Breeding Ecology Foraging Ecology Vocal Communication Vocal Apparatus Vocal Repertoire Vocal Individuality Acoustic Signatures for Species Recognition Hearing Abilities Threats and Conservation Cross-References References People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) Introduction The 1980s The 1990s 2000-2010 2011-Present Cross-References Perceiver Perception Perception for Action Perception-Action Loop Perception-Action Theory Synonyms Conclusion Cross-References References Perceptual Completion Perceptual Decision Perceptual Figures Perceptual Learning Definition Introduction Pre-exposure Schedule Effects Current Challenges for Perceptual Learning Cross-References References Perceptually Driven Processing Perching Bird Locomotion Perching Bird Physiology Perching Birds Perfect Pitch Peripheral Nervous System Perirhinal Cortex Synonyms Definition Introduction Location Structure Histology Connections and Functional Significance Clinical Disorders Conclusion Cross-References References Perissodactyla Cognition Synonyms Introduction The Tapirs (Tapiridae) Habitat and Social Organization Social Cognition The Rhinos (Rhinocerotidae) Habitat and Social Organization Social Cognition Object Discrimination The Equids (Equidae) Zebras Habitat and Social Organization Social Cognition Spatial Cognition and Movement Decisions The Donkeys Habitat and Social Organization Social Cognition Spatial Cognition Object Discrimination The Horses Habitat and Social Organization Social Cognition Horse-Human Recognition and Interaction Spatial Cognition and Object Permanence Movement Decisions Object Discrimination, Categorization, and Generalization Social Learning Conclusion Cross-References References Perissodactyla Communication Horses Vocalizations Neigh Nicker Snorts, Squeals, and Roars Postures Tactile Sense Olfactory Signals Scent Marking Donkeys Vocalizations Visual Signals Yawing Olfaction Zebras Vocalizations Postures Tapir Vocalizations Postures Olfaction Defecation Urination Rhinoceros Vocalizations Postures Olfaction White Rhinos Conclusion Cross-Reference References Perissodactyla Diet Tapirs Rhinoceros Horses, Asses, and Zebras References Perissodactyla Locomotion Synonyms Definition Gait Sequences Limb Loading Perissodactyl Locomotion and Medicine Conclusion Cross-References References Permanent Teeth Perseveration Perseverative Error Personality Personality in Animals Synonyms Introduction Measuring Animal Personality Why Do We Care About Animal Personality? Welfare Learning and Problem Solving Friendships Human Disturbance Conclusion Cross-References References Personalized Medicine PET Introduction Physics Image Production Radiochemistry Quantification Practical Considerations Applications Neurology and Psychiatry Oncology Cardiology Hybrid Imaging Small Animal Imaging Conclusion Cross-References References Pets Synonyms Definition Introduction Ownership Attachment and Relationships with Pets Attachment Changing Owner-Pet Relationships Euthanasia Health Benefits of Pet Ownership Social Facilitation Problems Associated with Pet Ownership Welfare Issues Adaptation to the Human Household Breed-Related Problems Intensification of Breeding Practices Nonmedical Surgical Alteration Abandonment or Relinquishment Conflicts Associated with Pet Ownership Human-Animal Conflict Issues of Nuisance Dog Bites Zoonotic Diseases and Parasites Animal-Wildlife Conflict Conclusion Cross-References References PFC Pharmacogenetics Synonyms Definition Introduction Pharmacogenetics of Membrane Transporters Drug Responses: Efficacy and Adverse Outcomes Pharmacogenetics in the Laboratory Cross-References References Phenotype Synonyms Definition Introduction Phenotypic Variation The Extended Phenotype Phenotypic Adaption Phenotype Matching Behavioral Genetics and Behavior as a Quantitative Trait Summary Cross-References References Phenotype Matching Cross-References References Phenotypic Plasticity Definition Introduction Conceptual History of the Term Examples of Phenotypic Plasticity Cross-References References Phenotypic Reversibility Pheromone Synonyms Introduction What Are Pheromones? Types and Functions of Pheromones Pheromones as Intraspecific Semiochemicals Sex Pheromones Aggregation and Host-Marking Pheromones Pheromones in Social Organization Alarm Pheromones Mode of Action of Pheromones Evolution of Pheromones from Chemical Cues Pheromone Diversity and Specificity Production of Pheromones Perception and Response to Pheromones/Releaser and Primer Effects of Pheromones Applications of Pheromones Pheromones in a Changing World Conclusion Cross-References References Philopatry Definition Introduction Natal Philopatry Reasons for Dispersal Sex-Biases in Dispersal Implications for Sociality Conclusion Cross-References References Pholidota Phonemes Phonological Loop Phonology Photoperiod Photoperiodism in Plants Perception of Photoperiodic Stimulus and Presence of a Floral Hormone Importance of Photoperiodism in Plants Photoperiodism in Animals Photoperiod and Reproduction Mechanism of Photoperiodic Stimulation Importance of Photoperiodism in Animals References Photoreceptors Definition Introduction Evolution of Photoreceptors Rods and Cones Cross-References References Phyletic Scale Phylogenetics Phylogeny Definition Introduction What Is Phylogeny? Evidence for Different Phylogenies Connection with Taxonomy Phylogenetic Trees Applications of Phylogeny Conclusion Cross-References References Phylum Definition Introduction Evolutionary Role of the Phylum Conclusion Cross-References References Physical Causality Physical Cognition Physical Composition Physiological Adaptations Physiological Appearance Physiological Reaction Physiology Piagetian Conservation Pig Gait Pig Locomotion Pigeon (Columbidae) Synonyms Overview Natural History Breeds, Morphology, and Lifespan Distribution and Habitat Evolution and Taxonomy History of Domestication Pigeons in Wartime Pigeons in the Modern World Natural Behavior of Pigeons in the Wild Multimodal Methods and Redundancy Pigeons in the Laboratory Pigeon Cognition Pigeon Visual Perception Foraging and Cognition Cross-References References Pika Pika Locomotion Pinniped Cognition Introduction Wild Pinniped Cognition and Communication Learning and Long-Term Memory Pinniped Cognition and Sensory Biology Threat Perception Theory of Mind Cognitive Abnormalities in the Wild and Under Human Care Summary Cross-References References Pinniped Communication Introduction Acoustic Behavior and Mating Strategies Acoustic Behavior of Mother-Pup Pairs Non-Acoustic Signaling Conclusion Cross-References References Pinniped Life History Evolution Life Span Reproduction Breeding Strategies Maternal Dependency/Lactation Foraging Molting Migrations Conclusion Cross-References References Pinniped Morphology and Locomotion Body Shape and Drag Laminar and Turbulent Flow Drag Thrust and Swimming Modes Energetics Power Produced by Contracting Muscles Cost of Transport (COT) Swim Speed Buoyancy Summary References Pitocin Pituitary Gland Synonyms Definition Introduction Morphology Anatomy and Development Vasculature Function and Site of Action of Different Pituitary Hormones Anterior Pituitary Hormones Posterior Pituitary Hormones Regulation of the Pituitary Gland Negative Feedback Control Cross-References References Place Versus Response Learning Definition Introduction What Fundamental Learning Processes Back Navigation? Why Is Place Learning Different? How Is Place Learning Captured? What Parameters Affect Place Learning? Conclusions Cross-References References Placoderm Life Histories Synonyms Definition Introduction Reproduction Growth Habitat Conclusion Cross-References References Placoderm Morphology Synonyms Definition Introduction External Morphology Dermal Skeleton Internal Axial Skeleton Jaws and Teeth Braincase Reproductive Structures Musculature Organ Systems Placoderm Classes Antiarchs Petalichthyida, Brindabellaspida, and Acanthothoracida Ptyctodonts Arthrodira Entelognathus References Placodermi Diet Synonyms Definition Introduction Cross-References References Placodermi Locomotion Synonyms Definition Representative Locomotor Behavior of Dunkleosteus and Bothriolepis Evolutionary Implications of the Placoderms Conclusion Cross-References References Plane Symmetry Planning What Is Planning? Why Is It Important? Motor Planning and Sequence Planning Anticipation of Future Needs and Planning Accordingly Prospective Memory Planning in the Wild Summary Cross-References References Plant Behavior Plant Cognition Plant Learning Plant Signaling Plant Vision Plantae Synonyms Introduction What Is Plant Behavior and Cognition? History Early Beginnings Plant Signaling and Behavior Aspects of Plant Cognition Competition and Foraging Communication Learning and Memory Models of Plant Behavior Predictive Processing Ecological Psychology Recent Developments Numerosity Swarm Intelligence Visual Guidance Sentience Cross-References References Plasmodial Slime Molds Plathyrrhine Bioacoustics Plathyrrhine Calls Plathyrrhine Vocal Communication Synonyms Definition Introduction Nonacoustic Communication (Tactile-Visual-Olfactory) Acoustic Communication Acoustic Repertoire Alarm Calls Contact Calls Loud or Long-Distance Calls Food Calls Taxonomy Referentiality Applied approaches Conclusion Cross-References References Plathyrrhine Vocalizations Platypus Platyrrhine Platyrrhine Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Platyrrhine Cognition in Physical Contexts Perceiving Objects Memorizing Objects and Places Motor Planning for Reaching and Grasping Objects Using Objects as ``Tools´´ Quantifying Objects Understanding Similarities Platyrrhine Cognition in Social Contexts Learning from (with) Others Understanding What Others Can (or Cannot) See Working Together Conclusions Cross-References References Platyrrhine Diet Introduction Family Cebidae Subfamily Cebinae (Genera Cebus, Sapajus, Saimiri) Subfamily Aotinae (Genus Aotus) Subfamily Callitrichinae (Genera Callithrix, Mico, Cebuella, Callibella, Callimico, Saguinus, Leontocebus, Leontopithecus) Family Atelidae Subfamily Atelinae (Genera Ateles, Lagothrix, Brachyteles) Subfamily Alouattinae (Genus Alouatta) Family Pitheciidae Subfamily Pitheciinae (Genera Pithecia, Chiropotes, Cacajao) Subfamily Callicebinae (Genus Callicebus) Platyrrhine Feeding Ecology Conclusion Cross-References References Platyrrhine Locomotion Definition Introduction Setting the Context Pitheciidae Cebinae Callitrichinae Atelidae Conclusion Cross-References References Platyrrhine Sensory Systems Synonyms Definition Introduction Platyrrhines Platyrrhine Sensory Systems Vision Olfaction Hearing Cross-References References Platyrrhini Play Play Behavior Introduction Defining Play The Many Forms of Play The Origins and Evolutionary Transformation of Play The Playful Brain The Functions of Play Conclusions Cross-References References Playing Possum Pleiotropy Cross-References References Plural Marriage Point Light Biological Motion Point Light Displays Synonyms Definition Introduction History Technique and Stimulus Types Paradigms and Findings Applications in Animal Research, Patients, and Infants Theory and Modeling Conclusion Cross-References References Point Mutation Pointing Introduction A Classic Approach Used to Investigate Pointing Comprehension in Animals Pointing Comprehension in Object-Choice Tasks in Human Infants Domesticated Animals Dogs and Cats Goats, Horses, and Pigs Undomesticated Animals Monkeys and Bats Apes Wolves Elephants Seals and Sea Lions Parrots Dolphins Discussion Who Gets the Point? Receptive Competencies Productive Pointing The Issue of Domestication and Other Biological Foundations for Understanding Pointing Conclusion Cross-References References Pollex Polluting Pollution Synonyms Definition Forms of Pollution Cost of Pollution Sources and Causes of Pollution Anthropogenic Sources Plastic and Marine Debris Metals and Metalloids Nutrients Radionuclides Effects of Pollutants on Human Health Air Pollutants Water Pollutants Nutrient as Pollutants Soil Pollutants Conclusion Cross-References References Polyandry Synonyms Definition Introduction Polyandry in Nonhuman Animals Polyandry in Humans Cross-References References Polyestrous Synonyms Definition Introduction Length of the Estrous Cycle Endocrine Changes of the Polyestrous Cycle The Seasonal Polyestrous Cycle The Monoestrous Cycle Other Environmental Impacts on the Polyestrous Cycle Conclusion Cross-References References Polygamous Marriage Polygamy Polygenic Effect Polygenic Inheritance Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Polygeny Synonyms Definition Introduction Mapping of Polygenes Polygenic Inheritance Cross-References References Polygynandry Synonyms Definition Introduction Polygynandry in Nature Cross-References References Polygyny Definition Introduction Polygyny Resource Defense Polygyny Female Defense Polygyny Lek Polygyny Scramble Competition Polygyny Cross-References References Polygyny Threshold Model Synonyms Definition Introduction How the PTM Works Assumptions of the PTM Predictions Derived from the PTM Tests of the PTM Predictions Revisiting the PTM Assumptions Sexual Conflict and the PTM Division of BSQ on Polygynous Territories Individual Differences in Female Competitive Strength Degree of Synchrony Between Females in Polygynous Dyads Division of Paternal Effort Between the Primary and Secondary Female Male Interference to Mitigate Female Attempts at Monopolizing Breeding Resources Incorporating Varying Female Competitive Strength in the PTM Concluding Remarks Cross-References References Polymorbidity Polymorphic Synonyms Definition Introduction Sources and Effects of Polymorphism Common Misconceptions Conclusion Cross-References References Polypeptide Polyphasic Activity Pattern Polyspecific Associations Synonyms Definition Introduction Anti-Predator Benefits Foraging Benefits Social Benefits and Other Advantages Conclusion Cross-References References Polythelia Pongoland Ponzo Illusion Synonyms Definition The Ponzo Illusion Ponzo Illusion in Humans Ponzo Illusion in Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Pop-out Population Synonyms Definition Introduction Population Characteristics Population Size Determining the Population Size Factors Affecting Population Size Population Density Population Dispersion Pattern Life History Types of Life History Semelparous Type Iteroparous Type Survivorship Curves Biotic Potential and Environmental Resistance Carrying Capacity (K) Population Dynamics/Population Growth Models Exponential Growth Model Logistic Growth Model Population Ecology and Evolution: (r/K Selection Theory) Population Interactions Sociobiology/Social Behavior Cross-References References Position Positional Candidate Gene approach Positive Reinforcement Synonyms Definition Introduction Positive Reinforcement Versus Rewards Positive Reinforcement Versus Negative Reinforcement Practical Applications of Positive Reinforcement Reinforcement and Motivation Cross-References References Positive Selection Possessiveness Postconflict Affiliation Post-conflict Affiliation Synonyms Definition Introduction Reconciliation and Third-Party Affiliation Form and Function of Post-conflict Affiliation Methods for Studying Post-conflict Affiliation Conclusions Cross-References References Post-conflict Resolution Definition Introduction Relationship´s Qualities, Reconciliation, and Consolation Discussion Cross-References References Postcopulatory Intersexual Selection Postcopulatory Selection Synonyms Definition Sexual Selection Postcopulatory Selection Sperm Competition Cryptic Female Choice Conclusion Cross-References References Posthumous Fertilization Definition Introduction Posthumous Fertilization in Natural Populations Mechanisms of Sperm Storage Evolutionary Causes and Consequences Conclusion Cross-References References Postimplantation Delay Post-transcriptional Modification Posttranslational Modification Introduction Protein Folding Biological Functions of PTM Techniques to Study PTM Perspectives References Potto Pouched Mammal Locomotion Pragmatics Precedence Effect Synonyms Introduction Functional Significance of the Precedence Effect Methods for Studying the Precedence Effect The Precedence Effect and Preferences for Leading Signals in Mate Choice Precedence Effects and Perception in Complex Natural Environments Conclusion Cross-References References Precision Grip Synonyms Definition Anatomical, Mechanical, and Behavioral Definitions of Precision Grip Conclusion Cross-References References Precocial Synonyms The Precocial/Altricial Spectrum Evolution of Developmental Modes Instinct and Predispositions Conclusion Cross-References References Predation Predation Risk Introduction Adaptations of Predators Adaptations of Prey Strategies to Avoid Encountering and Detection Strategies to Escape an Attack Strategies to Deter Predators Impact of Predation Risk on Higher Organizational Levels Conclusion Cross-References References Predator Definition Introduction Classification of Predators Adaptations for Predation Senses Vision Smell Hearing Hunting Strategies Stalking Sit and Wait Group Hunting Physical Adaptation Teeth and Claws Jaws Special Features Intelligence Antipredator Adaptation Coevolution of Predators Dynamics of Predation Role of Predators in Ecosystem Role in Food Chain Selective Impact on Prey Biodiversity Management by Predators Conclusions Cross-References References Predator Defense Synonyms Definition Introduction Preventing Encounter and Detection: Avoiding the Issue Preventing or Aiding Recognition: It Is Not What You Think Preventing Subjugation: Fight or Flight Preventing Consumption: The Last Line ``Social´´ Defenses: Safety in Numbers How Do Antipredator Strategies Evolve?: An ``Arms Race´´ Between Predators and Prey Conclusions Cross-References References Predator Detection Introduction How to Recognize a Predator? Genetically Determined Recognition Nongenetically Determined Recognition Learned Recognition Sensory Ecology of Predator Detection Visual Detection Chemical Detection Acoustic Detection Mechanical Detection Multimodal Predator Detection Predator Detection as a Driving Force in Social Evolution Predator Detection and Sociality Reliability and Cheating Conclusion Cross-References References Predator Swamping Predicting Rational Behavior Predictive Processing Preening Pregnancy Block Prehensile Tail Cross-References References Prehensility Prejudice Preparatory Response Pretence Pretend Play Synonyms Definition Recognizing Play Types of Play Pretend Play in Humans and Nonhumans Conclusion Cross-References References Prey Primary Consciousness Primary Defenses Synonyms Definition Introduction Cross-References References Primary Dentition Primary Memory Primary Somatosensory Cortex Gross Connectivity of Primary Somatosensory Cortex (S1) How Submodalities of Touch Are Segregated in the Sensory Cortex? Underpinnings Regarding the Sensory Homunculus Implications Regarding Somatosensory Cortex in the Clinics Additional Pearls Regarding S1 from the Laboratories Plasticity of Somatosensory Cortex References Primate Primate Analogies Primate Behavior Primate Cognition Synonyms Definition Overview Cross-References References Primate Communication Introduction Defining Signal Types Origins of Human Language What Do We Know About Primate Communication? Gestures Variability of Gestural Repertoires Intentional Use Vocalizations Variability and Flexibility in Vocal Repertoires and Their Usage Referential Vocalizations and Meaningful Combinations Facial Expressions Rhythmic Patterns of Primate Mouth Movements Intentional Control Conclusion Cross-References References Primate Diet Definition Introduction Description of Diet: Trophic Feeding Labels Description of Diet: Generalist and Specialists Dietary Flexibility and Nutritionally Explicit Description of Diet Cross-References References Primate Locomotion Synonyms Definition Major Locomotor Modes Conclusion Cross-References References Primate Models Primate Movement Primate Orphans Synonyms Definition Introduction Chances of Survival Adoption Variables in the Adoption Process Effects of Losing Mother Sanctuaries Conclusion Cross-References References Primate Perspectives on the Evolution of Human Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Hominin Evolution Primate Models Primate Perspectives on Ecology Primate Perspectives on Technology Primate Perspectives on Social Life Primate Perspectives on Communication Conclusion/Summary Cross-References References Primate Research Centers Synonyms Yerkes National Primate Research Center (Atlanta, GA) Oregon National Primate Research Center (Beaverton, OR) Washington National Primate Research Center (Seattle, WA) Wisconsin National Primate Research Center (Madison, WI) California National Primate Research Center (Davis, CA) Tulane National Primate Research Center (Covington, LA) Southwest National Primate Research Center (San Antonio, TX) Controversies and Closures Other Primate Research Centers Cross-References References Primate Sensory Systems Synonyms Definition Introduction Vision Primate Stereoscopic Vision Primate Color Vision Other Primate Eye Adaptations Olfaction Gustation Audition Tactile System Conclusion Cross-References References Primate Social Structure Introduction Definition Types of Social Relationships Parameters Underlying Social Structure in Primates Kinship Age and Sex Composition Diversity of Social Structures in Primates Colobines Cercopithecines Apes Cross-References References Primate Suspensory Behavior Synonyms References Primate-Human Homologies Primates Introduction Primate Taxonomy History of Primate Taxonomy Current Primate Taxonomy Strepsirrhini Lemuriformes Lorisiformes Haplorrhini Tarsiiformes Simiiformes Platyrrhini Catarrhini Cercopithecoidea Hominoidea Conclusion Cross-References References Primer Synonyms Definition Introduction Characteristics of a Good Primer Species of Primers Cross-References References Priming Definition Introduction Types of Priming Positive and Negative Priming Supraliminal and Subliminal Priming Perceptual and Conceptual Priming Structural Priming Affective Priming Priming Cultures and Social Categories Common Priming Tasks Neural Responses Associated with Priming Priming in People with Brain Damage, Alzheimer´s Disease, and Huntington´s Disease Applications of Priming Doubts Regarding Priming Effects Conclusion Cross-References References Primitive Reflex Principle of Simplicity Prisoner´s Dilemma Overview Historical Background Developing a Formalized Understanding of the Prisoner´s Dilemma Iterated Prisoner´s Dilemma and the Emergence of Strategies Relevance of the Insights from the Prisoner´s Dilemma for Real-World Applications Cross-Reference References PRL Proactive Interference Synonyms Definition Introduction Experimental Paradigm Variables that Modulate the Interference Cross-References References Probability Distributions Problem-Solving Definition Introduction Tool-Use-Related Problem-Solving Proto-Tool Tasks Cooperative Problem-Solving Future Questions Cross-References References Proboscidea Proboscidea Cognition Introduction The Elephant Brain Sensation and Perception Discrimination Numerosity Problem-Solving and Tool-Use Social Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Proboscidea Communication Synonyms Definition Introduction Vocal Communication Rumble Bark Grunt Roar Snort Trumpet Growls Contact Calls and Answers Group Coordination Vocal Discriminations Familiarity Individual Recognition Dominance Antiphonal Calling Male Communication Reproduction Chemical Signaling Environmental Factors Physiology Conclusion Cross-References References Proboscidea Diet Introduction What Wild Elephants Eat Digestive Morphology In Captivity Conclusion Cross-References References Proboscidea Gaits Proboscidea Locomotion Synonyms Definition Quadrupedal Gait Mechanics Comparison Between Species Energetics and Migration Additional Locomotor Activities Influence on Bioinspired Robotics Conclusion Cross-References References Proboscidea Morphology Synonyms Definition Introduction Skeletal Brain Reproduction Integument System Gastrointestinal Elephant Trunk Morphology Ears Feet Dentition Conclusion Cross-References References Proboscidea Navigation Synonyms Definition Introduction Locomotion Herd Dynamics and Navigation Sensory Modality of Navigation Brain, Memory, and Navigation Home Range Migration Precipitation and Availability of Food Mate-Finding Conclusion Cross-References References Procavia capensis Procedural Memories Process Process of Elimination Productiveness Productivity Progesterone Synonyms Definition Summary A Classical Endocrinology Perspective: Where Is Progesterone Made and How Does It Act? Distribution of the PR in the Vertebrate Brain Beyond the Classical Perspective Differential Effects of Progesterone on Sexual and Receptive Behavior in Rodents Role of Progesterone in Courtship Parental Behavior and Pair Bonding in Birds Progesterone in the Avian Sex Role Reversed Progesterone in Whiptail Lizards Progesterone and Social Dominance in the African Cichlids Progesterone and Cognition in Animal Models Conclusion Cross-References References Progressive Deterioration Proisocortex Prolactin Synonyms Definition Introduction Overview Function in Vertebrates Fish, Amphibians, and Reptiles Birds and Mammals Common Promoters and Inhibitors Cross-References References Promiscuity Definition What Is Promiscuity? Promiscuity and Mating Systems Is Multiple Mating Widespread? Is Promiscuity Widespread? Differences Between the Sexes, Sex Roles, Sexual Stereotypes, and Promiscuity Why Do Animals Mate Multiply? And Why Do They Engage in Promiscuous Matings? Promiscuity, Direct Benefits, and Bet-Hedging Conclusions Cross-References References Pronucleus Properties of Human Language Prosimian Prosimian Cognition Synonyms Introduction Tarsiiformes Lemuriformes Lorisiformes Conclusion Cross-References References Prosimian Communication Synonyms Introduction Vocalizations Scent Marking Multimodal Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Prosimian Diets Cross-References References Prosimian Life History Synonyms Definition Introduction Infraorder Tarsiiformes Infraorder Lemuriformes Infraorder Lorisiformes Cross-References References Prosimian Locomotion Introduction Prosimian Lifestyles Body Size and Locomotion Ways to Get Around as a Prosimian, or Locomotor Styles Vertical Clinging and Leaping (VCL) Arboreal Quadrupedalism Terrestrial Quadrupedalism Bipedalism Conclusion Cross-References References Prosimian Morphology Synonyms Introduction Tarsiiformes Lemuriformes Lorisiformes Conclusion Cross-References References Further Reading Prosimian Navigation Definition Introduction Tarsiiformes Lorisiformes Lemuriformes Conclusion References Prosimian Sensory Systems Introduction Vision Olfaction Auditory Touch and Taste Cross-References References Pro-social Behavior Definition Introduction Pro-social Behavior in Naturalistic Settings Experimental Evidence of Pro-social Behavior Factors Influencing Pro-social Behavior Dominance Existing Social Bonds Communicated Intent Hormonal Influences Cognitive Factors Future Directions Cross-References References Prosocial Choice Test Prosociality Prosopagnosia Introduction Cognitive Perspectives of Prosopagnosia Cortical Areas Involved in Face Recognition Conclusion References Prospective Memory Cross-References References Prospective Processing Protandric Hermaphroditism Protandrous Hermaphroditism Synonyms Definition Introduction Terminology Diagnosis and Detection Occurrence Mechanisms and Cues of Sex Change Evolution and Adaptive Significance Cross-References References Protandry Protein Synonyms Definition Introduction Protein Evolution Structural Organization of Protein Protein Metabolism Amino Acid Synthesis Ailment Due to Protein Misfolding or Deregulation in Metabolism and Energy Malnutrition Conclusion Cross-References References Proteome Definition Introduction: What Is the Proteome and Why Study It The Proteome: A Dynamic System Posttranslational Modifications as an Important Source of Dynamism and Diversity Alternative Splicing and Its Role in the Proteome Conclusions Cross-References References Protocooperation Proto-counting Cross-References References Protogynous Hermaphroditism Cross-References References Protolanguage Definition Introduction Protolanguage and Bickerton´s Theory of Language Origins The Diverse Forms of Protolanguage Evaluating the Theory of Protolanguage Cross-References References Proto-social Behavior Prototheria Proxy Species Prudence Psittaciformes Locomotion Synonyms Definition Flight Biomechanics Flight Energetics Additional Locomotion Modes Migration Bioinspiration Conclusion Cross-References References Psittaciformes Sensory Systems Introduction The Senses of Parrots Vision Spatial Resolution Color Vision and Ultraviolet Visual Fields Temporal Resolution Hearing Sound Location Smell Taste Touch Magnetoreception Cross-References References Psittacine Cognition Introduction Definition/Identity Physical Features and Habits of Relevance to Cognition Social and Environmental Conditions The Psittacine Brain Explanations for Growing a Larger Brain Brain Lateralization Footedness Studies of Cognition Means-End Tests String-Pulling Task Trap-Tube Task Object Permanence Numeracy/Assessing Volumes Food Searching/Memory Inferential Reasoning Nonverbal Signals (Gestures, Body Postures, Facial Expressions) Play Behavior Cooperation, Prosocial Behavior, and Cognition Vocal Behavior General Calls Recognition Calls Referential Signals Vocal Mimicry Cross-References References Psittacus erithacus Psychomotor Test System (PTS) Psychopharmacology of Sex Steroids Synonyms Definition Introduction The Hypothalamic Pituitary Gonadal Axis (HPG) Steroid Synthesis Brain Areas Aggressive Behavior Territorial Aggression Maternal Aggression Sexual Behavior Parental Behavior Other Behaviors Depression Alcohol Consumption Sleep Conclusion Cross-References References Psychophysical Threshold Psychophysiological Responses Pterotillomania Ptilonorhynchidae Puberty Synonyms Definition Some Definitions Related to Puberty Introduction Physiology of Puberty Pulsatile Secretion and Release of Gonadotropin Negative Feedback Control by Higher Centers Stages of Puberty Pubertal Stages (Tanner) in Females Uterine Development Ovarian Development: Stage 1 Ovarian Development: Stage 2 Ovulation Female Secondary Sexual Characteristics Pubertal Stages (Tanner) in Males (Fig. 3) Secondary Sexual Development in Boys Testes Development: Stage 1 Testes Development: Stage 2 Testes Development: Stage 3 Bone Age Precocious/Delayed Puberty Hormonal Changes in Puberty Conclusion Cross-References References Pubescence Punishment Synonyms Definition History Two Types of Punishment Procedures An Alternative Definition of Punishment Variables that Influence the Effectiveness of Punishment Theories of Punishment Commonly Listed Problems with the Use of Punishment Effects of Negative Punishment on Behavior Ethical Punishment and Societal Issues Punishment in Other Disciplines Conclusion Cross-References References Purpose Putative Candidate Gene Q QTL QTL Linkage Analysis Synonyms Definition Introduction What Do We Need for QTL Analysis? QTL Mapping Analysis of Variance (Crosses 2001) Interval Mapping Composite Interval Mapping (CIM) Family-Based QTL Mapping/Family Pedigree-Based QTL Mapping Construction of Linkage Map (Collard et al. 2005) Softwares for QTL Linkage Analysis MapQTL QTL IciMapping (Meng et al. 2015) Conclusion Cross-References References QTL Mapping Quadrumanous Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Quadrumanous Locomotion Quadrupedal Synonyms Definition Walking Gaits Running Gaits Gait Transitions Cross-References References Quadrupedalism Qualitative Disorders Definition History Autosomal Recessive Qualitative Disorders Autosomal Dominant Qualitative Disorders Huntington Disease Phenylketonuria Sex-Linked Qualitative Disorder Hemophilia X-Linked Hypophosphatemia Symptoms of Qualitative Disorders May Be Pleiotropic Effect Conclusion Cross-References References Quality Quantitative Genetics Introduction Heritability Cross-References References Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) Definition Introduction Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) Quantitative Trait Loci in Multifactorial Disease Conclusion Cross-References References Quantity Judgments Quiescence R Rabbit Rabbit and Hare Locomotion Racing Radial Arm Maze Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of RAM Conclusion Cross-References References Radial Symmetry Definition Introduction Radial Symmetry Different Forms of Radial Symmetry Phylum in Animal Kingdom Showing Radial Symmetry References Raffle Principle Cross-References References Raiding Synonyms Definition Nonhuman Primates Humans Cross-References References Ralph Miller Education and Early Influences Academic Career Major Contributions to the Study of Animal Cognition and Behavior The Learning-Performance Distinction Acquired Information Expression is Relative to the Situation: The Comparator Hypothesis Temporal Coding as an Essential Component of the Formation and Expression of Associations Conclusion Cross-References References Randy Thornhill Early Life and Educational Background Professional Career Research Interests Cross-References Selected Publications Books Representative Additional Publications Range Rank Rank Order Rape Rare-Type Advantage Rational Imitation Definitions Imitation Rational(ity) Rational Imitation Introduction The Birth of Rational Imitation Replications The Evolution of Rational Imitation: Evidence in Nonhuman Animals Challenges and Reconsiderations: Problems with the Original Interpretation of the Rational Imitation Phenomenon The Dispute on Rational Imitation as an Inference-Based Process Challenges for Rational Imitation as a Coherent Theoretical Construct Introducing a New Approach to the Selective Imitation Conclusions References Rationality Definitions Rational Logic Top-Down Reasoning Categories of Rationality Logical or Deductive Inference Stimulus Equivalence Spatial Deductive Inferences Temporal Deductive Inferences Causal Deductive Inferences Inference by Exclusion Inference in Ambiguous Situations Induction Causal Power Concept Learning Rule Learning Tool Use, Physical Cognition, and Theory of Mind Conclusions References Ray Locomotion Ray-Finned Fishes Reaching Reaction Norm Reaction Time Historical Background Other Time-Based Measures Used in Studying Animal Cognition Current Uses and Theory Analyzing Median RTs Truncating the Upper Tail Transforming RTs Generalized Linear Modeling Mixtures of Distributions Other Issues Arising in the Analysis of RTs Unresolved Issues Are Different Distributions Expected to Occur for Specific Paradigms or Species? Can Neural RTs Realize Donders´s Goals? Cross-References References Reafference Principle, The Definition Introduction Conclusions Cross-References References Rearing Reasoning Reasoning by Exclusion Synonyms Definition Introduction Two Cups Task Reward Location Reward Identity Three Cups Task Evenly Spaced Two Sets Four Cups Task Invisible Displacement Bent Tube Task Two-Choice Transfer Tasks Conclusion Cross-References References Reasoning by the Disjunctive Syllogism Recall Synonyms Cross-References References Receiver Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Receptivity Introduction Receptive Period Signs of Receptivity Male Control of Female Receptivity Cross-References References Recessive Synonyms Introduction Depiction of Dominant and Recessive Alleles Ear Lobe Trait in Humans (Cruz-Gonzalez and Lisker 1981; Krampf n.d.) Lactase Persistence Trait Eye Color Recessive Inheritance Pattern Some Common Myths Explained (Learn. Genetics. Genetic Science and Learning Center (n.d.) Conclusion Cross-References References Web References Reciprocal Altruism Reciprocity Recoding Recollection Recombinant Inbred Lines Recombinant Inbred Strain Synonyms Definition Introduction Discovery Taxonomy Usage Advantages Conclusion Cross-References References Recombination Synonyms Definition Functions of Genetic Recombination Models of Recombination Holiday Model (Single Strand Break Model) Enzymes Involved in Recombination Types of Recombination Conclusion Cross-References References Reconciliation Synonyms Definition Introduction Occurrence of Reconciliation Function of Reconciliation Conclusions Cross-References References Recreation Red Queen Effect, The Interspecies Competition Intersexual Competition Intraspecies Competition Cross-References References Reduced Penetrance Reductionism Synonyms Introduction Limitations of Measurement that Affect All Sciences The Rosenthal Effect Reductionism and Explanation Skinner´s View of Explanation Compared to a Reductionist´s Explanation Closing Remarks Cross-References References Reference Memory Cross-References References Referential Communication Synonyms Defining Functional Referentiality The Level of Specificity on the Production and Perception Side Limitations of the Theoretical Framework Selective Pressures on Evolving Functionally Referential Signals Nonvocal Functionally Referential Signals Functionally Referential Signals and the Evolution of Human Language Conclusions Acknowledgment References Reflection Symmetry Reflex Reflex Action Reflex Arc Reflexes Reform Darwinism Regional Primate Research Centers (RPRCs) Regurgitation Introduction Mechanism for Regurgitation Regurgitation and Veterinary Practice References Rehearsal Synonyms Cross-References References Reichstein´s Substance H Reinforcement Related: Visual Senses Relational Concepts and Symbolic Logic Introduction Class Concepts Uses of Some Relational Concepts Are So Far Unknown Disjunctive Relational Concepts Exclusive Disjunctive Truth Table Illustrated with Discriminanda Misuse of the ``Conditional Discrimination´´ Task The Conjunctive-Conditional Conundrum Natural or Mental Logic Versus Symbolic or Standard Logic Cross-References References Relational Learning Relational Matching Relational Thinking Relational Understanding Relationship Between Animal and environment Relationship Between Perception and Action Relationship Quality Relative Numerousness Introduction What is Counting? Ecological Salience of Numerousness Processes Used to Determine Numerousness Prototype Matching Conceptual Relative Numerousness Judgments Concluding Remarks Cross-References References Releaser Stimulus Remnant Remorse Repeat Sequences Synonyms Introduction Long Interspersed Nuclear Elements (LINEs) Short Interspersed Nuclear Elements (SINEs) Long Terminal Repeats DNA Transposons Conclusion Cross-References References Repeating Puzzle Box Repentance Repetitive Elements Replicating Replication Represent Representation Reproduction Synonyms Definition Introduction Reproduction Types Asexual Reproduction Fission Multiple Fission Budding Regeneration or Fragmentation Spore Formation Vegetative Propagation or Vegetative Reproduction Sexual Reproduction in Plants Animal Reproduction Female Reproductive System The Ovary The Oviduct The Uterus The Embryo The Cervix The Vagina Male Reproductive System The Testicles The Epididymis The vas Deferens The Penis Conclusion Cross-References References Reproductive Cell Reproductive Fitness Synonyms Definition Survival of the Fittest Absolute and Relative Fitness Cross-References References Reproductive Output Reproductive Potential Reproductive Strategies Reproductive Success Reproductive Suppression Reproductive Synchrony Synonyms Definition Description Cross-References References Reproductive System Synonyms Definition Introduction Male Reproductive System Testis and Epididymis Blood supply of testis and epididymis Prostate Zonal Anatomy of Prostate Age Changes in the Prostate Arterial Supply Spermatic Cord Penis Female Reproductive System Uterus Subdivisions Axes of Uterus Body of Uterus Cervix of Uterus Ligaments of Uterus Support of Uterus Arterial Supply and Venous Drainage of Uterus Lymphatic Drainage Nerve Supply Clinical Correlation Uterine (Fallopian) Tube Clinical Correlation Ovaries Clinical Correlation Vagina External Female Genital Organs References Reputation Synonyms Introduction The Human Concept of Reputation The Social Eavesdropping Paradigm Benefits and Evolution Cross-References References Requesting Paradigm Rescue Behavior Definition Explanations of Rescue Behavior Kin Selection Reciprocal Altruism Multilevel Selection Theory Rescue Behavior in Humans and Nonhuman Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Resistance to Extinction Resource Defense Resource Defense Polygyny Synonyms Definition Introduction Examples of Resource Defense Polygyny Conclusion Cross-References References Resource Holding Potential Synonyms Definition Summary Cross-References References Resource Holding Power Resource Provisioning Respiratory System Synonyms Definition Introduction Upper Respiratory System Nose Pharynx Lower Respiratory System Larynx Tracheobronchial Tree Lungs Domestic Animal Differences Dogs and Cats Horses Ruminants Pigs Ferrets Guinea Pigs and Chinchillas Hedgehogs and Sugar Gliders Mice, Rats, Hamsters, and Gerbils Rabbits Chelonians (Turtles, Tortoises) Birds Conclusion References Response Bias Response-Dependent Aversive Stimulation Response-Initiated Delays in Reinforcement Restraint Synonyms Physical Restraint Can Be Manual or Mechanical Cross-References References Restriction Restriction Endonucleases Restriction Enzyme Synonyms Definition Restriction Site Types of Restriction Enzymes Application of Restriction Enzymes Conclusions Cross-References References Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Synonyms Definition Principle of RFLP How Does RFLP work? Applications of RFLP Demerits of RFLP Conclusion Cross-References References Retroactive Interference Synonyms Definition Introduction Forgetting: Time Passing or Interference? Experimental Paradigm Variables that Modulate the Interference Cross-References References Retrospective Evaluation Retrospective Revaluation Cross-References References Return of Fear Reversal Learning Introduction Reversal Learning Procedures Trials to Criterion Fixed Time or Trial Number Neuroscientific Evidence for Reversal Learning References Reversible Plasticity Rhinoceros Gait Rhinos Rhombencephalon (Hindbrain) Without Brain Stem Ribonucleic Acid Ribosome Definition Introduction Structure of Ribosome Function of Ribosome Summary Cross-References References Richard Byrne Early Life and Educational Background Professional Career Research Interests Cross-References References Richard Dawkins Main Text Education Academic Career Publications Television Documentaries and Other Appearances Honors and Awards The Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science Cross-References References Richard Wrangham Words Cross-References References Riding Ritualization Definition Introduction History Process of Ritualization Examples Conclusion Cross-References References RNA Synonyms Definition Introduction Structure of RNA Types of RNA RNA World Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References RNA Sequencing Robert Hinde Introduction Life and Work Cross-References References Robert Mearns Yerkes Cross-References References Robert Seyfarth Introduction Background Contributions to Social Behavior and Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Robert Trivers Parental Investment Theory Parent-Offspring Conflict Reciprocal Altruism Trivers-Willard Hypothesis (Facultative Sex Ratio Determination) Cross-References References Rock Dove Rock Hyrax Rock Rabbit Rodent Gaits Rodent Locomotion Rodentia Cognition Definitions Introduction Types of Cognition Perception, Recognition, and Discrimination Learning Memory Decision-Making Spatial Cognition Social Cognition Problem-Solving and Innovation Cognitive Neuroendocrine Mechanisms Sensory Integration The Brain Hippocampus Prefrontal Cortex Hormones and Neurotransmitters Dopamine Corticosterone Oxytocin Developmental Effects: Age and Sex Age Effects Physical Changes Stress Effects Sex Effects Conclusions Cross-References References Rodentia Communication Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Communication? Venues of Communication Foraging Play Mating Aggression Predation Conclusion Cross-References References Rodentia Diet Cross-References References Rodentia Life History Definition Introduction Life History Variation Across Taxa Anomaluromorpha Castorimorpha Hystricomorpha Myomorpha Sciuromorpha Life History Variation Within Taxa Age and Size-Related Variation Silver Spoon and Maternal Effects Geographic Variation Yearly Variation Iteroparity Versus Semelparity The r-K and the Fast-Slow Continuums Conclusions Cross-References References Rodentia Locomotion Synonyms Definition: Terrestrial Locomotion Arboreal Locomotion Aquatic Locomotion Conclusion Cross-References References Rodentia Morphology Introduction Cardiovascular System Dentition Excretory and Gastrointestinal Systems Reproductive System Respiratory System Neurological System Inbred Rodent Strains Discussion Cross-References References Rodentia Navigation Synonyms Definition Background Social Influences on Navigation while Foraging. A Case of Episodic Memory? Dead Reckoning or Path Integration Navigation Using a Single Beacon or Landmark Navigation Using Information Based on Multiple Landmarks (Which Includes Geometric Encoding) Navigation Using Information Based on the Relationship of Multiple Landmarks. The Cognitive Map. Navigation Using a Visual Matching Strategy. Cross-References References Rodentia Sensory Systems Synonyms Definition Introduction Audition Vestibular Gustation Olfaction Tactile Vision Conclusion Cross-References References Roger K. Thomas Birth to High School Graduation Graduate Education Postdoctoral Fellowship Career at the University of Georgia (UGA) Teaching Research Administration Avocational Interests Cross-References References Role-Reversal Experiment Definition Introduction Procedure What Do Role-Reversal Experiments Measure? Conclusion Cross-References References Roles of Medial Prefrontal Cortex Activity in Human and Animal Social Learning Established Functions of the Medial Prefrontal Cortex in Human and Nonhuman Animal Cognition Initial Evidence for mPFC Role in Memory and Higher Cognitive Processes mPFC Role in Social Cognition and Learning Future Directions Cross-References References Ronald Schusterman Efficiency in Learning Decision-Making in Uncertainty Emergent Behavior Legacy Cross-References References Ronald Weisman Cross-References References Rooting Reflex Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Roots and Shoots Cross-References References Roughage Rough-and-Tumble Play Route Following r-Reproductive Strategists r-Reproductive Strategy Definition Synonyms Introduction Life History of r-Reproductive Strategists High Reproductive Rate Rapid Development Early Reproduction Small Body Size Semelparity Short Life Span Ecological Significance of r-Reproductive Strategy Conclusion References r-Selection Rudiment Rudimentary Organ Rule Learning Rumbaughx Runaway Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Fisher´s Theory Postcopulatory Runaway Selection Testing Fisher´s Model of Runaway Selection Challenges and Future Directions Conclusion Cross-References References Rutting Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Rutting Period S Saccades Saccadic Eye Movement Introduction Neural Substrate of Saccadic Eye Movement Recording Paradigms and Types of Saccades References Sacred Cats Synonyms Introduction Big Cats (Pantherinae) Small Cats (Felinae) Conclusions Cross-References References Safari Synonyms Cross-References References Salamander Salamander or Newt Locomotion Saliency Salientia Communication Introduction Acoustic Communication Structures of Bioacoustic Signals Mechanisms of Sound Production and Reception Morphological and Environmental Effects on Acoustic Signals Social Interactions Honest and Dishonest Signals Visual Communication Chemical Communication Tactile Communication Multimodal Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Salientia Gaits Salientia Life History Cross-References References Salientia Locomotion Synonyms Definition Metamorphosis Major Locomotor Modes Bioinspiration Conclusion Cross-References References Salientia Morphology Introduction Larval Morphology Metamorphosis Adult Morphology External Morphology Internal Morphology Sexual Dimorphism Evolution Cross-References References Salientia Movement Salientia Navigation Synonyms Definition Introduction Navigation and Orientation Strategies in Salientia Physiological and Behavioral Adaptations for Movement Dispersal Movements in Salientia Migration in Salientia Conclusion Cross-References References Salientia Sensory Systems Introduction Cutaneous Sense Organs Auditory Sense Organs Photoreception Chemoreception Internal Sense Organs Conclusions Cross-References References Same/Different Concept Same/Different Learning Introduction Same/Different Abstract-Concept Learning by Capuchin Monkeys Same/Different Abstract-Concept Learning by Rhesus Monkeys Same/Different Abstract-Concept Learning by Pigeons Same/Different Abstract-Concept Learning by Clark´s Nutcrackers Same/Different Abstract-Concept Learning by Black-Billed Magpies Concluding Remarks References Sara Shettleworth Cross-References References Sarah ``Sally´´ Boysen References Sarah Brosnan Early Life and Education Research Interests Cross-References References Sarah, Lana, Sherman, and Austin Sarah Lana Sherman and Austin Cross-References References Satiation Definition Physiological Mechanisms of Satiation Gastric and Intestinal Mechanisms Brain Mechanisms The Impact of External Factors on Satiation Cross-References References Savannah Definition Introduction Origin and Spread of Savanna Climatic Condition that Support Savanna Types of Savanna Biological Diversity of Savanna Flora Fauna Factors Regulating Savanna Ecosystem Fire Herbivory Edaphic Factor Effect of Anthropogenic Activity Conclusion and Future Prospective Cross-References References Savings Definition Introduction Spontaneous Recovery, Renewal, and Reinstatement Rapid Reacquisition, Learning to Learn and Concurrent Recovery Theories of Savings Implications of Savings for Therapeutic Procedures Conclusion Cross-References References Scala Naturae Synonyms Definition Introduction History Impact and Implications in the Twenty-First Century Scientific Thinking Human-Nonhuman Relationships Conclusion Cross-References References Scaly Anteater Scavenger Scent Scent Mark Scent-Marking Synonyms Definition Behavior Location of Scent Marks Composition Conclusion Cross-References References Schedule-Induced Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Generality of Schedule Induction Motivational Variables that Influence Schedule-Induced Behavior Induction and Reinforcement as Behavioral Mechanisms Implication of Neurobiological Circuits on Schedule Induction Conclusion Cross-References References Schedules of Reinforcement Synonyms Definition Introduction Methods Used in Schedule Research Basic Types of Schedules Continuous vs. Intermittent Reinforcement The Four Basic Schedules of Reinforcement Variables Affecting Schedule Performance Other Simple Schedules of Reinforcement Combining Schedules of Reinforcement Alternating Simple Schedules Schedules of Reinforcement Used to Study Choice Compound Schedules of Reinforcement Uses of Schedules of Reinforcement in Research Cross-References References Schooling Scramble Competition Polygyny Definitions Introduction Scramble Competition Polygyny Life History Strategy Conclusion Cross-References References Scramble Defense Polygyny Synonyms Definition Introduction Scramble Defense Strategy Conclusion Cross-References References Scramble Polygyny Screamers Sea Cow Sea Cow Ambulation Search Image Introduction von Uexküll and Tinbergen Experimental Evidence of Search-Image Use Learning to See Search-Image Use by Salticid Spiders Using Specific Olfactory Searching Images Trade-Offs Cross-modality Priming of Selective Attention Conclusion Cross-References References Searching Secondary Defense Secondary Defenses Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Secondary Defenses Withdraw to Retreat Flying Behavior Protean Behavior Flash Behavior Diversion Deimatic Displays Aposematism Conclusion Cross-References References Secondary Dentition Secondary Sex Characteristics Definition and Introduction Sexual Dimorphism Biological Ornamentation and Color Female Choice Males Can Be Choosy Too Bright Male Hypothesis Immunocompetence Handicap Hypothesis Fisher´s Runaway Hypothesis Primary Hormonal Controls Secondary Hormonal Controls Species-Specific Hormonal Controls Chemical Controls and Endocrine Disruption Environmental Controls Sex Differentiation and the Environment Conclusion Cross-References References Seeing Selection Pressures Selection Study Synonyms Definition Conclusion Cross-References References Selective Attention Self-Administration Definition History and Apparatus Motivation and Reinforcement: Central Tenants of Self-Administration Free Access Operant Self-Administration (Skinner Box) Typical Self-Administration Procedure Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio Variable and Random Ratios Progressive Ratio Fixed and Variable Interval Schedules Tandem, Multiple, and Mixed Schedules Second-Order Schedules Chained Schedules Concurrent Schedules Extinction and Reinstatement Applications Cross-References References Self-Awareness Synonyms Introduction Defining Self-Awareness The Evidence We Would Need The Evidence We Have Metacognition Basic Metacognition Paradigms Evidence About Metacognition Does Metacognition Test Self-Awareness? Metacognition Summary Theory of Mind Basic Theory of Mind Paradigms Evidence About Theory of Mind Does Theory of Mind Test Self-Awareness? Theory of Mind Summary Mirror-Guided Behavior Basic Mirror-Guided Behavior Paradigms Evidence About Mirror-Guided Behavior Does Mirror-Guided Behavior Test Self-Awareness? Mirror-Guided Behavior Summary Unresolved Issues and Future Directions Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Control Self-Decoration Self-Decoration in Dolphins Synonyms Self-Decoration in Humans Object Handling in Animals Self-Decoration in Bottlenose Dolphins Cross-References References Self-Directed Behavior Evidence of Self-Recognition in Studied Species Conclusions Cross-References References Self-Domestication Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction The Role of Aggression The Domestication Syndrome Domestication in Dogs Domestication in Bonobos Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Injurious Behavior Synonyms Definition Common Forms of SIB SIB Classification Stereotypic SIB Major SIB Compulsive SIB Impulsive SIB SIB in Development SIB Risk Factors Disabilities SIB Prevalence Gender and Ethnicity Why Individuals Engage in SIB Impacts of SIB Treatment Options Cross-References References Self-Injury Self-Mutilation Self-Recognition Self-Reproach Self-Serving Attribution Self-Serving Bias Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Self-Starvation Semantic Coding Semantic Memory Semanticity Semantics Introduction Approaches to Semantics Across Disciplines Biosemiotics and Zoosemiotics Case Study: The Honeybee Waggle Dance Conclusion Cross-References References Semen Semi-aquatic Synonyms Definition Origin of Life and Transition from Water to Land Extant Semi-aquatic Organisms Adaptations to Semi-aquatic Living Anatomy Physiology Thermoregulation Cross-References References Semiochemicals Semi-Starvation-Induced Hyperactivity (SIH) Semiterrestrial Lifestyle Sender Senescence Synonyms Definition Introduction Background Conclusion Cross-References References Sensation Sensation and Movement Sensations Senses Sensing Sensitive Period for Song Learning Sensitive Periods Sensitization Synonyms Definition Incentive Sensitization Behavioral Sensitization (Sensitization Effect) Cross-References References Sensitization Effect Sensitization Process Sensorimotor Striatum Sensory Acquisition Phase Sensory and Motor Impulses Sensory Channel Sensory Discrimination Sensory Drive Sensory Judgment Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Foundations Thresholds and the Just Noticeable Difference Estimating Classical Thresholds: Methods Threshold Estimation Method of Adjustment Method of Limits Method of Constant Stimuli Adaptive Staircasing Signal Detection and the Role of the Observer Threshold Estimation in Vision Animal Research Rodents Primates Human Development Experimental Validity Application Conclusion Cross-References References Sensory Receptors Sensory Systems Sensory-Motor Control Sentience Sentinel Species Sequence Analysis Sequence Learning Sequential Pattern Learning Serendipity Synonyms Definition Introduction Origins of Serendipity Scientific Serendipities Serendipity: Chance or Reasoning Cross-References References Serial List Learning Representation of a List Knowledge of Ordinal Position Planning List Responses Numerical Lists Conclusion References Serial Pattern Learning Serotonin Synonyms Definition Introduction Organization of 5-HT Systems in Animals Motor Activity and Locomotion Arousal Sleep and Circadian Rhythm Feeding Social Status and/or Aggressiveness Anxiety Mood Learning and Memory Impulsive/Compulsive Dimension and Behavioral Flexibility Conclusion Cross-References References Service Dogs Synonyms Definition What is a Service Dog? Types of Service Dog Why Dogs? Selecting Suitable Dogs Evidence for Cognitive Differences in Service Dogs Cross-References References Set Sex Changer Sex Characteristics Sex Check Sex Differences Synonyms Sex Determination Hormones Aggression Cognition Mating and Attraction Health Cross-References References Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities Sex Hormone Sex Hormones Sex Ratio Synonyms Definition Introduction Fisher´s Principle Sex Ratio in Nonhumans Sex Ratio in Humans Cross-References References Sex Role Reversal Introduction Evolution of Conventional Sex Roles Evolution of Reversed Sex Roles and Examples Cross-References References Sexing Sex-Linked Synonyms Definition Introduction Characteristic Features of the Sex-Linked Phenotypes Sex-Linked Inheritance Sex-Linked Disorder Cross-References References Sex-Related Sexual Adaption Sexual Antagonism Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Intralocus Sexual Conflict Interlocus Sexual Conflict Sexually Antagonistic Coevolution Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Cannibalism Sexual Classification Sexual Climax Sexual Coercion Sexual Conflict Sexual Dimorphism Synonyms Definition Introduction Anisogamy and the Molecular Development of Sexual Dimorphism Sexual Dimorphism in Invertebrates Sexual Dimorphism in Vertebrates Sexual Dimorphism in Humans and Other Primates Cross-References References Sexual Identification Synonyms Definition Description Cross-References References Sexual Infidelity Sexual Intercourse Sexual Maturity Sexual Reproduction Sexual Selection Historical Development of the Concept of Sexual Selection Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace Ronald Fisher Angus John Bateman Robert Trivers and John Maynard Smith Sexual Selection and Sexual Dimorphism Sexual Dimorphism in Body Size Sexual Dimorphism in Color and Ornamentation: Sexual Dichromatism Sexual Dimorphism in Behavior Courtship Mating and Parental Care Context-Dependent Sexual Dimorphism Sexual Conflict (Sexual Antagonistic Coevolution) Summary Cross-References References Sexual Selection Gradient Sexually Dimorphic Behavior Shaking Palsy Shame and Guilt Synonyms Definition Introduction Adaptive Value Research Cross-References References Shape Shape Perception Shaping Synonyms Definition Introduction The Story of Shaping: Its Antecedents and Its Discovery The Practice of Shaping (and What It Is Not) Cross-References References Shared Ancestor Shark Locomotion Shedding Shift Shock Probe Defensive Burying Shock Prod Defensive Burying Short Interfering RNA Short Interspersed Nuclear Elements Short Period Memory Short Tandem Repeats Short Tandem Repeats (STR) Short-Term Memory Synonyms Definition Introduction Neural Aspects of the Short-Term Memory Development of STM Capacities Across Species Types of Memory Distinction of LTM and STM Interactions Between LTM and STM Activation and Retrieval Process (Mechanism) Development of STM Memory Storage Capacity Storage Buffers Mechanism of Decaying/Forgetting of STM Training Methods for STM Conclusion Cross-References References Siblicide Definition Explanation of Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Sidman Avoidance Sight Sign Stimulus Sign Tracking Synonyms Definitions and Origins of Sign Tracking Applications of Sign Tracking Neurobiological Mechanisms of Sign Tracking Cross-References References Signal Signaled Avoidance Signaling Signaller Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Signals Sign-Tracking Simian and Prosimian Mental Processes Simple Sequence Repeats Synonyms Definition and Introduction SSR Composition and Genomic Distribution SSR ``Birth´´ and Evolution Functional Consequences of SSR Variation SSRs and Human Disease Conclusion Cross-References References Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR) Simulation Simulative Communication Simultaneous Attention Single Frame Lifetime Display Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) Synonyms Definition Introduction Identification Diseases Importance of SNPs Examples Are as Follows Databases Programs for Prediction of SNPs Evolutionary Relationship Conclusion Cross-References References Single Subject Siren Locomotion Sirenia Diet Synonyms Definition Introduction African Manatee (Trichechus senegalensis) Amazonian Manatee (Trichechus inunguis) West Indian Manatee (Trichechus manatus) Dugongs (Dugong dugon) Conclusion Cross-References References Sirenia Locomotion Synonyms Definition Swimming Manatee ``Swim-Walking´´ Migrations Sirenian-Human Interaction Conclusion Cross-References References Sirenia Morphology Synonyms Introduction Evolution Functional Morphology General Digestive System Special Senses Relationship of Lungs, Blood, and Bone Density Pectoral Fins Morphological Adaptations and Survivability Conclusion Cross-References References Sirenia Navigation Synonyms Definition Introduction Morphological Adaptations for Navigation Home Range Migration Brain, Memory, and Navigation Abiotic and Biotic Factors that Influence Navigation Conclusion Cross-References References Sirenia Sensory Systems Synonyms Introduction Sensory Processes of Manatees Somatic Sensation Audition Vision Chemoreception Conclusion Cross-References References Situated Cognition Size Constancy History: Holway and Boring (1941) Underlying Factors of Size Constancy Size Constancy in Animals Cross-References References Size Illusion Geometric Illusions: Misperceptions of Size The Jastrow Illusion The Ebbinghaus and Delboeuf Illusions Cross-References References Skate Locomotion Skeletal System Synonyms Definition Introduction Skeletal System Development General Skeletal System Structure The Axial Skeleton Cranial Skeleton (Skull) Vertebral Column Cervical Vertebrae Thoracic Vertebrae Lumbar Vertebrae Sacral Vertebrae Caudal Vertebrae Ribs (Costae) Sternum The Appendicular Skeleton Pectoral Girdle Thoracic Limbs Pelvic Girdle Pelvic Limb Conclusion References Skeleton Skills Skin and Its Derivative Skinner Box Synonyms Cross-References References Sleep What Is Sleep? Definition and Criteria Measuring Sleep Why Animals Sleep so Differently Sleep Duration and Sleep Structure Across the Animal Kingdom On the Function of REM and NREM Sleep The Ecological Niche Shapes Sleep Current Hypotheses on the Function of Sleep Sleep for Memory Consolidation: Active System Consolidation Theory Sleep for Synaptic Tuning: Synaptic Homeostasis Hypothesis (SHY) Sleep for Metabolic Clearance Sleep for Energy Conservation Sleep for Immune Function What Drives Sleep?: The Molecular Basis of Sleep GABA Promotes Sleep Biogenic Amines Such as Histamine Promote Wakefulness Orexin Stabilizes Wakefulness Melatonin: The Molecular Clock cAMP and CREB: Learning and Sleep Are Molecularly Linked The Adenosine Hypothesis: Cellular Activity Induces Sleep Conclusion Cross-References References Sleep Cycles Slime Molds Synonyms Definition Introduction Taxonomy of Slime Molds Life Cycle of Slime Molds Role of Slime Molds in Animal Cognition and Behavior Conclusions References Small Interfering RNA (siRNA) Synonyms Definition Introduction Structure Mechanism Research Tools Off-Target Effects of siRNA Therapies Conclusion Cross-References References Smell Smooth Pursuit Movements Snake, Lizard, or Worm Lizard Locomotion Sneak Copulator Sneaker Males Sneakers Sneaky Copulator Synonyms Definition Introduction Monopolization, Mate Guarding, and Punishment Mating Systems Including Sneaky Copulators Conflict between and within the Sexes Withholding Information Cognitive Level Sneaky Copulators and Human Sexual Behavior Cross-References References Sneaky Mating Sneaky Matings Social Affordance Synonyms Definition Affordance Social Affordance Cross-References References Social Behavior Social Bonding Social Bonds Social Buffering Definition Introduction Attenuating Stress: Social Buffering Theory The Role of Oxytocin in Social Buffering Developmental Influences on Social Buffering Effects of Familiarity on Social Buffering Social Structure and Social Buffering Conclusion Cross-References References Social Cognition Social Darwinism Synonyms Definition Introduction History of Social Darwinism Ramifications of Social Darwinism Conclusion Cross-References References Social Diffusion Social Ethology Social Evolution Social Evolution Studies Social Facilitation References Social Grooming Synonyms Definition Main Text Cross-References References Social Hierarchy Social Impression Social Intelligence Social Intelligence Hypothesis Definition History Mechanisms Support for the Social Intelligence Hypothesis Critiques of the Social Intelligence Hypothesis Derived Hypotheses Importance and Impact of the Social Intelligence Hypothesis Cross-References References Social Interaction Social Learning Definition The Spread of Innovations Learning at Different Life Stages Social Learning Mechanisms When Is Social Learning Adaptive? Social Learning in Animal Species Social Learning Experiments Detecting and Measuring Social Learning Using Observational Data Conclusions Cross-References References Social Network Analysis Introduction Social Networking in Biology: From Genes to Animal Societies Social Networking in Animal Research: Some History Principle Network Metrics Global Metrics Density Geodesic Distances Diameter Global Clustering Coefficient Network Clusterization Dyadic Metrics Assortativity Transitive Triplets Node Metrics First-Order Metrics Degree and Strength Second-Order Metrics Eigenvector Centrality Reach Node Betweenness Local Clustering Coefficient Specific Points to be Considered Within the SNA Research Context Null Model Hypothesis Randomization Network Randomization Pre-network Randomization Simulation-Based Approach Monte Carlo and Markov Chain Exponential Random Graph Models An Example of Research into the Power of Social Networking in Animal Societies Micro Level: Individual Position, Role, and Fitness Meso Level: Individual Interaction Patterns Macro Level: Global Group/Network Structure SNA for a Holistic and Multidisciplinary Approach Cross-References References Social Organization Social Ostracism Definition Introduction Reasons for Social Ostracism Negative Implications for Social Ostracism Tactics to Avoid Social Ostracism Conclusion References Social Preening Social Relationships Sociality Socialization Definition Introduction Primary and Secondary Socialization Primary Socialization and Mother´s Influence Secondary Socialization and Importance of Play Behavior Socialization in Wild Species and Anthropogenic Influences How Domestication Influences Socialization Conclusion Cross-References References Society for Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology Sociobiology Introduction The Selfish Gene George C. Williams and the Essence of Sociobiology Male Lion Social Behavior: Coalitions of Unrelated Individuals Male Lion Social Behavior: Coalitions of Related Individuals Acceptance of Genic vs Group Benefit Selection More Cases of the Utility of Individual Selection, Including More Examples of Sexual Conflict Acceptance of Indirect Selection Cases Demonstrating the Utility of Indirect Selection Insect Sociality and Altruism Haplo-diploid Sex Determination and Indirect Selection Other Examples of the Utility of Indirect Selection as Explanations for Altruism Conclusion Cross-References References Sociodramatic Play Sociosexual Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Cross-References References Somatic Cell Division Somatic Cells Definition Introduction Follicle Cells Gene Imprinting and X-Inactivation Somatic Doubling Mutations in Somatic Cells Induced Somatic Recombination References Somatic Chromosome Song Alternating Song Bird Locomotion Song Learning in Songbirds Song Overlapping Songbird Duets Definition What a Duet Is, and What It Is Not Research on Duetting in Songbirds Description Timing Structure Visual Elements Mechanisms Behavioral Mechanisms Physiological Mechanisms Development Functions Cooperative Hypotheses Cooperative Territory Defense Spatial Localization Pair Bonding and Reproductive Synchrony Conflict-Based Hypotheses Mate Guarding Paternity Guarding The Functions of Structural Coordination and Fine-Scale Temporal Coordination Evolution Conclusion Cross-References References Songbird Learning Synonyms Definition Introduction History of Research Classical Work Model Species Current Research The Evolution of Song Learning Song Learning in Female Songbirds The Adaptive Significance of Song Learning An Overview of the Learning Process When, What, and from Whom Do Birds Learn? When Does Learning Occur? Practice, Improvement, and Attrition What Is Learned? From Whom Do Birds Learn? Song Mimicry The Endocrinology of Song Learning The Neuroscience of Song Learning Brain Regions Auditory Feedback Mirror Neurons Gene Expression in the Brain Cultural Evolution and Song Dialects Cross-References References Song-Type Matching Sonogram SOP Model Cross-References References Sorting Sound Sound Spectrogram Synonyms Definition Introduction A Guide to Understanding Spectrograms Spectrograms in Modern Animal Bioacoustics Conclusion Cross-References References South American Manatee Sow Stall Space Perception Space Use Spacer DNA Spandrels Sparrowhawk Sparse/Dense Discrimination Cross-References References Spatial Abilities Spatial Learning Spatial Learning and Memory Spatial Orientation Synonyms Definition Background Sex Differences While Solving Spatial Problems One Biological Explanation That Strengthens Over Time The Role of the Hippocampus in Spatial Learning and Memory Our Earliest Ancestors: Hunter-Gatherers Societies and Human Evolution Final Conclusions Cross-References References Spatial Recognition Spatial Reorientation Spawning Synonyms Definition Introduction Spawning Site Selection Exceptional Patterns What Makes an Egg Buoyant? How the Eggs Meet with Sperm in the Wild Cross-References References Speciation Synonyms Definition Modes of Speciation Allopatric Speciation Peripatric Speciation Parapatric Speciation Sympatric Speciation Conclusion Cross-References References Species The Concept of Species and Its definition: An Historical Perspective Current Concepts of Species Morphological Species Concept The Biological Species Concept The Evolutionary Species Concept The Genetic Species Concept The Ecological Species Concept The Agamospecies Concept Modes of Speciation Discovery of New Species Conclusion: The Importance of Taxonomy for Conservation Cross-References References Species Cooperation Species-Specific Behavior Definition The Origins of Species-Specific Behaviors Importance Among Wildlife Conservation In Captivity Cross-References References Specificity Coding Spectral Waterfalls Sperm Competition Definition Introduction General Mechanisms of Sperm Competition Offensive Adaptations for Sperm Competition Defensive Adaptations for Sperm Competition Trade-Offs Between Pre- and Post-Copulatory Sperm Competition Traits Mate Choice and Cryptic Female Choice Conclusion Cross-References References Sperm Retention Spermatocytogenesis Spermatogenesis Synonyms Definition Spermatogenesis trough the animal life cycle Cross-References References Spermatozoa Spheniscidae Spontaneous Recovery Synonyms Definition Introduction Does Inhibition Fade? Conditions Favoring Spontaneous Recovery Weakened Associations Spontaneous Recovery in Instrumental Learning Conclusions Cross-References References Sporadic Discovery Sporting Spreading Spurious Correlation Squamata Diet Synonyms Introduction Food and Feeding Habits of Snakes (Serpentes) Food and Feeding Habits of Lizards (Lacertilia) Conclusion References Squamate Acoustic Communication What Is Communication? Acoustic Communication Acoustic Communication in Squamata Anatomical Structures Associated with Vocalization in Squamata Cross-References References Squamate Cognition Introduction Cognition and the Squamate Brain Specialized Sensory Systems and Communication Learning and Memory Spatial Cognition Social Cognition Concluding Remarks Cross-References References Squamate Life History Synonyms Introduction Sexual Dimorphism Copulatory Organs Courtship Fertilization Sperm Storage Parthenogenesis Viviparity Parental Care Reproductive Endothermy Growth Cross-References References Squamate Locomotion Synonyms Definition Major Locomotor Modes Influence of Squamate Locomotion on Bio-inspired Robotics Conclusion Cross-References References Squamate Morphology Introduction External Morphology Integument Internal Morphology Osteology Myology Visceral Morphology Hemipenis Cross-References References Squamate Sensory Systems Visual System Chemosensory Systems Olfactory System Vomeronasal System Gustatory System Auditory and Vestibular Systems Somatosensory System Infrared System Cross-References References Stabilizing Selection Definition Introduction: What Is Stabilizing Selection? A Brief Statistical Overview of Stabilizing Selection Examples of Stabilizing Selection Stabilizing Selection and Its Role in Maintaining the Relative Long-Term Stability of a Species Conclusions Cross-References References Stage IV Error Stand and Wait Feeding Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Description of Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Stand and Wait Foraging Behavior Stand-and-Wait Feeding Standing Stanley Kuczaj Language Highlights Verbs! Extending into Syntax and Semantics Developing Through Play Transitioning to Marine Mammals Artificial Language Comprehension Cognition Play Behavior Acoustics References State of Thermal Equilibrium Statistical Association Status Step Reflex Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Stepping Reflex Stereoscopic Vision Steven Gangestad References Stimulus and Local Enhancement Local Enhancement Stimulus Enhancement References Stimulus Control Definition Establishing Stimulus Control Stimulus Control Topography and Stimulus Generalization Response Factors in Stimulus Control Stimulus Control Transfer Research in Animal Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Stimulus Response Stochastic Distributions Synonyms Definition Stochastic Processes Distribution of Outcomes Theoretical Distributions Cross-References References Stone Tools Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Use Stones? Stone-Tool-Using Animals Stone Tool Function Stone Tools and Animal Cognition Stone Tools and Social Behavior Human Stone Tools in Animal Context Conclusion Cross-References References Stop-Signal Task Storage Site of Nuclear Material Strategy Reversibility Synonyms Definition Introduction Reversal of Traits in Response to Environment Strategy Reversibility and the Rise of Mammals Conclusion Cross-References References Strepsirhine Strepsirhini Strepsirrhine Strepsirrhini Stress Definitions Introduction: The Stress System Processing of Systemic Stress Processing of Neurogenic and Anticipatory Stress Modulating the Stress Response Stress and Neuroplasticity Psychological Stress and Maladaptive Neuroplasticity Physical Activity and Adaptive Neuroplasticity: Brainstem and Hypothalamus Physical Activity and Adaptive Neuroplasticity: Hippocampus and Amygdala Effects of Physical Activity on Mood and Cognitive Performance Cross-References References Stress and Memory Stress Coping Stress Dichotomy String String Pulling Definition Introduction Cognition and String Patterns Ecology and Evolution Conclusion Cross-References References Stroop Effect Definition Stroop Effects for Color Symbols Numerical Stroop-Like Effects Neural Underpinnings of the Stroop Effect Conclusion Cross-References References STRs Structural Adaptations Structural Plasticity Structure Stuck-in-Time Hypothesis Synonyms Cross-References References Studies of Twins Studying Subdominant Suboptimal Behaviors in Gambling-Like Tasks Definition Introduction The Gambling-Like Task The Mechanisms Involved in the Suboptimal Choice The Demographics of Suboptimal Choice Conclusions Cross-References References Subsong Definition Introduction The Auditory Template Hypothesis Sensory Acquisition Phase Sensorimotor Phase Structure and Function of Subsongs Vocal Motor Practice and Exploration Beyond Vocal Imitation Neurobiological Basis of Subsongs Conclusion Cross-References References Substance Withdrawal Syndrome Subtraction Definition Introduction The Unfortunate Beginning of the Study of Arithmetic Ability in Animals Subtractions in Human Infants Subtractions in Adult Animals Subtractions in Young Animals Conclusions Cross-References References Successive Approximations Suckling/Nursing Synonyms Antonyms Definition Introduction and Terminology Morphological Aspects for Nursing Morphological Aspects for Suckling Physiology of Suckling/Nursing Behavior of Suckling/Nursing Conclusion Cross-References References Suction Sue Savage-Rumbaugh Personal and Professional History Significant Contributions Cross-References References Suidae Suidae Navigation Superior Parietal Lobule (SPL) Functional Properties of the Macaque SPL Anatomical Connections of the Macaque SPL Conclusions Cross-References References Superior Temporal Sulcus Functions Mentalizing in Autism Spectrum Disorders Human Specific Asymmetry in the STS Cross-References References Supernormal Stimulus Supernumerary Nipple Synonyms Definition Introduction Epidemiology Classification Sites The Embryogenesis of Supernumerary Nipple Association of Supernumerary Nipples with Various Systems Treatment Conclusion References Superorganism Definition Introduction Social Insects as Superorganisms Superorganisms Outside of the Social Insects Characteristics of Superorganisms Scope of the Terminology Conclusion Cross-References References Superstition Experiment (Staddon and Simmelhag 1971) Synonyms Definition of Superstitious Behavior Skinner (1948) Superstition Experiment Staddon and Simmelhag (1971) Reexamination of the Superstition Experiment Results of Staddon and Simmelhag (1971) Acquisition Results for Bird 49 Steady-State Behavior Theoretical Analysis by Staddon and Simmelhag (1971) Legacy of Staddon and Simmelhag (1971) Cross-References References Superstitious Behavior Superstitious Reinforcement Suppression Surrogate Species Survival Survival of the Fittest Survival Processing Synonyms Definition Introduction Mechanisms and Limitations Future Directions and Conclusions Cross-References References Survival Relevance Survival Studies Susan D Healy Synonyms Cross-references References Sustainable Forest Management Definition Introduction Criteria and Indicators Forest Certification Conclusions and Future Perspectives Cross-References References Swans Swarm Intelligence Swine Cognition Synonyms Introduction Swine as Discrimination Learners Swine as Spatial Learners Swine as Problem-Solvers Swine as Social Animals Differentiation of Conspecifics Social Learning Swine and Humans Other Cognitive Phenomena in Swine Time Perception/Mental Time Travel Self-Awareness/Mirror Test Theory of Mind Swine Cognition and Animal Welfare Conclusion Cross-References References Swine Communication Vocal Communication Communication Through Postures and Body Language Olfactory Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Swine Gait Swine Life History Taxonomy and Domestication Expansion of Domestic Swine Social Structure and Home Range Mating Farrowing and Weaning Commercially Reared Pigs Social Structure and Home Range Mating Farrowing and Weaning Boars Cross-References References Swine Locomotion Synonyms Definition Gait Kinetics and Kinematics Gait in Young Swine Swimming Lameness Conclusion Cross-References References Swine Navigation Synonyms Definition Introduction Warthogs Wild Boar Wild Pigs Red River Hogs Peccaries and Wild Hogs Optimal Foraging Theory Sensory Cues Disturbance Effects Spatial Memory Foraging Motivation Domestication Effects Social Foraging Conclusion Cross-References References Symbiont Symbiosis Symbiotic Relationship Synonyms Introduction Mutualism Commensalism Parasitism Obligate Parasitism Facultative Parasitism Brood Parasitism Cross-References References Symbolic Distance Synonyms Definition Summary Cross-References References Synchronized Reproduction Synonyms for Cognition: Cognitive Abilities Synonyms for Platyrrhines: Neotropical Monkeys Syntax Synteny Definition Introduction Types of Synteny Synteny Evolution and Its Relationship with Gene Regulation Conservation of Microsynteny and Allelic Association Studies Cross-References References Syntocinon T T.H. Huxley on Human and Ape Brains Definition T.H. Huxley Evidence as to Man´s Place in Nature On Human and Ape Brains in The Descent of Man The Evolutionary Significance of Archaeopteryx Conclusion Cross-References References Tactile Tactile Perception Taï Chimpanzees Introduction Sociality and Bonds Reconciling Conflicts Hunting and Food Sharing Tool Use and Culture Adoptions Conservation Conclusion References TALEN Tannin Conclusion Cross-References References Web References Tapetum Structure, Histochemistry, and Origin of Tapetal Cells Types of Tapetum Developmental Regulation and Molecular Biology of Tapetal Cells Role of Tapetum References Tapir Gait Tapirs Target Targeted Mutation Synonyms Introduction Homologous Recombination Zinc Finger Nucleases TALENs Conditional Knock-outs and Recombinase Systems CRISPR/Cas9 Lentiviral Vectors Conclusion Cross-References References Tarsier Taste Taste Aversions Introduction Processes and Mechanisms of Taste Aversion CTA Paradigm in Animal Research Neurobiology of Taste Aversion Conclusions References Taxa Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Taxis Taxon Taxonomic Rank Taxonomy Teaching Definitions of Teaching Examples of Animal Teaching Tandem Running in Ants (Temnothorax albipennis) Pup Provisioning in Meerkats (Suricata suricatta) Purr Calling in Pied Babblers (Turdoides bicolor) Categorizations of Teaching Conclusions Cross-References References Technical Intelligence Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Factors Responsible for the Emergence of Technical Innovations Extrinsic Factors Intrinsic Factors How Does the ``Technical Intelligence´´ Hypothesis Explain the Role of Object Play in the Emergence of Technical Innovations? Conclusion Cross-References References Techniques ``Technological Intelligence´´ Hypothesis Tecumseh Fitch Introduction Fitch´s Background Scientific Career and Output Cross-References References Teleology Versus Teleonomy in Animal Behavior History and Background Useful Distinctions Functional Versus Mechanistic Explanations Teleological Versus Teleonomic Explanations Misunderstandings Related to Teleological Explanations The Progressive Evolution Misunderstanding Fitness-Maximizers Misunderstanding Conclusion Cross-References References Temperament Synonyms Introduction Applications of Temperament Assessments Conclusion Cross-References References Template RNA Temple Cats Temporal Bisection Procedure Definition Introduction The Procedure and Typical Findings Conclusions Cross-References References Temporal Cortex Temporal Lobe Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of Temporal Lobe Temporal Lobe in Nonhuman Primates Temporal Lobe in Humans Medial Temporal Region (MTR) White Matter Associated with Temporal Lobe Important Structures in Temporal Lobe Disorders of Temporal Lobe Cross-References References Tendril Teratogen Definition Types of Teratogen Effect of Teratogen Teratogenic Drugs Biologic Teratogens Teratogenic Plants Cross-References References Terrestrial Synonyms Definition Introduction The context Focusing on Arthropods and Tetrapods to Understand Terrestrial Animals Cognition and Behavior Arthropods (Terrestrial) Chordata (Tetrapods) Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals Mode of Life Conclusion Cross-References References Terrestrial Animals Territorial Marking Territoriality Synonym Definitions Introduction What Is Defended and Why? Who Defends and When? Proximate Mechanisms Who Wins? Establishment Boundaries and Landmarks Hormones Neighbor-Stranger Discrimination Conclusion Cross-References References Territory Territory Defense Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Differences Territory Signaling Human Interference on Territorial Defense Conclusion Cross-References References Terry Maple Background Major Contributions Lasting Influence Cross-References Test for Analyzing Anxiety-Related Behaviors Testicle Testis Synonyms Definition Introduction Embryology Anatomy Hormone Function and Production Variation Amongst Species Conclusion References Testosterone Introduction Production of Testosterone and Its Metabolites Role of Testosterone in Sexual Differentiation of the Brain in Mammals Role of Testosterone in Spatial Abilities, Learning and Memory, and Depression in Humans Androgenic Modulation of Cognition and Behavior of Teleost Fishes Conclusion Cross-References References Testudines Cognition Visual Perception Spatial Cognition Social Cognition Long-Term Memory Summary Cross-References References Testudines Life History Synonyms Definition Introduction Cognition Through the Lens of Life History Development and Ontogeny Spatial Use and Habitat Choice Habitat Use and Abiotic Factors Social Structure Predator/Prey Interactions Conclusions Cross-References References Testudines Morphology What Are the ``Testudines´´? Cryptodira X Pleurodira The Turtle Shell Modifications and Adaptations to an Enclosed Body Conclusion Cross-References References Testudines Navigation Synonyms Introduction Geomagnetic Map Navigation Visual Cues Other Cues Orientation and Compass Setting in Sea Turtle Hatchlings Geomagnetic Navigation in Juvenile Sea Turtles Homing in Juvenile and Adult Sea Turtles Orientation in Aquatic and Semiaquatic Freshwater Turtle Hatchlings Navigation in Juvenile and Adult Aquatic, Semiaquatic, and Terrestrial Turtles Cross-References References Tetrapods Thanatosis Thayer´s Law The Ability to Conceive Children The Competitive Displacement Principle The Competitive Exclusion Principle The Crow Family The Dual-Process Theory The Mammalian Carnivore Order The Mark-Mirror Test The Mirror Test The Origin of Species The Peak Day The Peak of Fertility The Polygamy Threshold Model Theories of Play Definition and Introduction Why Studying Play Matters Play Theories Playfulness The Special Case of Sexual Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Theory of Mind Synonyms Definition Perceptual States Knowledge States Desire States Belief States Discussion Cross-References References Thermogenesis Thermoregulation Synonyms Introduction Mechanism and Counteractive Strategy Diagnosis Cross-References References Thinking Third-Party Affiliation Third-Party Interactions Introduction Understanding Third-Party Relationships Third-Party Interactions Support in a Conflict Policing Post-conflict Affiliation Affiliation Interventions Cross-References References Third-Tier Visual Areas Thought Thread Three Box Problem Three Prisoners Problem Three-Dimensional (3D) Perception Thrift Thyroid and Adrenal Glands Definition Thyroid Gland Introduction Anatomy Iodine Uptake Production of Thyroid Hormones Central Control of Thyroid Hormone Production and Signaling Carrier Proteins Membrane Transporters Regulatory Enzymes Receptors Actions of Thyroid Hormones Across Vertebrates Thyroid Hormones as Regulators of Seasonality Conclusion Adrenal Gland: Glucocorticoids Introduction Anatomy Glucocorticoids Central Regulation Carrier Proteins Regulatory Enzymes Receptors Major Roles References Ti Plasmid Time Budget Time Perception Time-Out from Reinforcement Time-Place Learning Definition Introduction Different Types of Timing Mechanisms Variation in Time-Place Learning Time-Place Learning in Wild Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Timing Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon Definition Introduction Classic Paradigm Factors Associated with TOT States Participant Factors Experimental Factors Neural Basis of the TOT Phenomenon Explanations of the TOT Phenomenon Conclusion Cross-References References Titchener Circles To Divide by Cutting Transversely/Longisection Toad Locomotion Todd Shackelford Early Life and Education Professional Career Research Interests Cross-References References Token Definition Introduction Advantages of Token Use for Animal Cognition Limitations of Token Tasks for Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Tolerance Definition Mechanisms of Chronic Tolerance Pharmacodynamics and Pharmacokinetics of Tolerance Compensatory Responses to Nondrug Stimuli Cross-References References ToM Tom Zentall Cross-References References Tongue Bone Tonic Immobility Synonyms Definition Introduction Advantages Inducing TI to Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Tool Use Synonyms Introduction Defining Tool Use Different Forms of Tool Use Extrinsic Factors Affecting the Propensity to Manipulate Objects Instrumentally Ecological Factors Social Factors Intrinsic Factors Affecting the Propensity and the Ability to Manipulate Objects Intrinsic Motivation and the Role of Object Play in Tool Use The Role of Anatomical Features in Tool Use Structure The Role of Experiential Learning in the Acquisition of Tool Use Conclusions Cross-References References Top-Down Processing Synonyms Neural Basis for Top-Down Processing Cross-References References Torpor Total Mass of Living Matter Touch Touch Screen Synonyms Alternative Words Definition Introduction History Technologies in Touch Screen Resistive Capacitive Surface Acoustic Wave Infrared Components of a Touch Screen System Application - Touch Screen Technology for the Visually Impaired Application - Touch Screen Technology for the Motor Impaired Cross-References References Tourism Trace Strength Definition Introduction Classic Conceptualization Factors That Influence Trace Strength Delay Between Encoding and Retrieval Repetition/Frequency of Exposure Elaborative Processing Standard Applications of Trace Strength Recency Judgments Frequency Judgments Recognition Judgments Conclusion Cross-References References Trading Trail Riding Training Traits Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) Introduction Principles of Operation Human Application Inducing Long-Term Changes in the Brain with TMS Gaining Insight from Animal Models Conclusion Cross-References References Transcription Definition Introduction Stages of Transcription Initiation Elongation Termination mRNA Processing in Eukaryotes Conclusion Cross-References References Transcriptome Definition Introduction Technological Advances Promote Transcriptomic Research Transcriptomics in the Brain Conclusion Cross-References References Transection Synonyms Definition Transection Brain Transection Spinal Cord Transection Liver Transection Nerve Transection Cross-References References Transfer Transfer Index Paradigm Transfer of Learning Transferring Transformation Transgenic Synonyms Definition Introduction Transgenic Organisms Applications Examples Conclusion Cross-References References Transitivity Translation Translocation Synonyms Definition Introduction Characteristics of Translocation Types of Translocation Role of Translocation in Human Disease Application of Translocation Cross-References References Transplant Transplantation Transposable Elements Transposition Synonyms Definition Introduction Associative Account of Transposition: Spence (1937) Intermediate-Size Transposition Multiple-Pair Transposition Conclusion Cross-References References Transposons Trap Building Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Trapping Trap-Table Critique of Early Trap-Tube Experiments The Creation of the Trap-Table Task Conclusions Cross-References References Trap-Tube Problem Definition Introduction The Tube Task The Trap-Tube Task Capuchin Monkeys Chimpanzees Children Other Trap-Tube Experiments Nonhuman Primates Birds Cross-References References Travel Traveling Salesman Definition Introduction Visual TSP Navigational TSP Conclusion Cross-References References Tree Hyrax Tree of Life Tree-Swaying Triadic Awareness Synonyms: Knowledge of Third-Party Relationships Cross-References References Triadic Gaze Definition of Triadic Gaze Early Form of Triadic Gaze Interaction Chimpanzees, Other Apes, and Triadic Gaze Interaction Conclusion Cross-References References Tribal Warfare Trichechus Trinucleotide Repeat Expansion Trinucleotide Repeat Expansion Diseases Triple Repeat Disorders Trisomy Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Trisomies and Down Syndrome as Trisomy Detrimental Aftereffects of Extra Chromosomes Conclusion Cross-References References Troop Definition Introduction Kangaroos and Wallabies Apes Monkeys Causes and Benefits of Troop Life Cross-References References Tropical Tropics Synonyms Definition Introduction Climate of Tropics Biodiversity of Tropics Threats to Biodiversity of Tropics Conclusions Cross-References References Tropism True Hawks Tuberous Electroreceptor Tubes Task Tupping Turing Test Synonyms Introduction Turing Test Details Lying Misidentification Good Performance by Machines Assumption of Knowledge Royal Society Experiment Conclusions Cross-References Acknowledgment References Turtles and Tortoises Twilight Twin Research Twin Studies Synonyms Definition Introduction Nature Versus Nurture Cognitive Ability and Development Behavior Mental Illness Future Directions and Conclusions Cross-References References Twin Study Method Twins Two-Alternative Forced-Choice Paradigm, The Synonyms Cross-References References Two-Choice (or Two-Object) Discrimination Learning Paradigm Two-Dimensional (2D) Retinal Images U Ubiquitously Selected Stimuli Ultimate Causation Synonyms Cross-References References Ultimatum Game Synonyms Definition Variations of the Ultimatum Game Animal Behavior Cross-References References Umwelt Synonyms Definition A ``Simple´´ Umwelt Interpenetration of Organisms and Umwelts Cross-References References Unborn Child/Baby Unborn Young Uncertainty Paradigm Cross-References References Unconditioned Reflex Unconditioned Response Synonyms Definition Introduction Sensitization and Habituation Opponent Process Theory Facilitation and Diminution of the UR Conclusion Cross-References References Unconditioned Stimulus Synonyms Definition Introduction Sensory and Motivational and Components of the US US Revaluation US-US Learning Surprisingness of the US Conclusion Cross-References References Uncorrelated Asymmetry Understanding Understatements Unemotional Ungulate Introduction Evolution of Cognition Social Structure: Gregarious and Solitary Ungulates Physical and Social Environmental Impact Migratory Behaviors External Factors on Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Ungulate Cognition Ungulate Demographics Ungulates Unicellular Cognition Unintentional and Intentional Experiment Unisexualism University of St. Andrews Unobservables Synonyms Definition Introduction Main Text Mental States Causal Reasoning Conclusion Cross-References References Unsolvable Task Paradigm Upsuck Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Internal Female Reproductive Organs What Happens During an Orgasm Upsuck Hypothesis in Action Conclusion Cross-References References Urodela Ursid Ursid Communication Ursid Husbandry Ursid Locomotion V Value Transfer Theory Introduction Evidence for VTT Mechanisms of Value Transfer Value Transfer and Contrast Conclusion Cross-References References Variable Expressivity Variable Number Tandem Repeats Vasal-Vagal Stimulation Overview of the Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Central Control of Autonomic Function Vaso-Vagal Response Vaso-Vagal Reflex: A Survival Mechanism? Cross-References References Ventral Stream Vergence Eye Movements Vertebrate Nervous System Synonyms Introduction Fundamental Units of the Nervous System Anatomical Divisions of the Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Central Nervous System Anatomical Differences Between Vertebrate Species Embryonic Development of the Nervous System Closing Remarks Cross-References References Vertebrate Skeleton Vertebrates (Chordata) Introduction Vertebrate Relationship with Other Chordates What Makes a Vertebrate The First Vertebrates and the Cyclostomes Ostracoderms and the Origin of Jawed Vertebrates Early Gnathostomes Chondrichthyes, the Cartilaginous Fishes Osteichthyes: Origin and Fossil Groups Actinopterygian Diversification Teleostei The Other Branch of the Osteichthyan Phylogeny: Sarcopterygii The Invasion of Land The First Tetrapods The Tetrapod Divise Living Amphibians and Their Relationship with Fossils Amniotes Early Synapsids and the Origin of Mammals Extant Mammal Diversity The Other Amniotes: Reptiles Aquatic Reptiles Lepidosaurs: The Classic Reptiles Archosauria Dinosaurs and the Origin of Birds Birds Testudines (Testudines Cognition, Testudines Life History, Testudines Navigation) Cross-References Acknowledgment References Vespertine (Active at Dusk) Vestibule-Ocular Movements Vestige Vestigial Organ Synonyms Definition Introduction History Evolutionary Processes Identification of Vestigial Organs Exaptation Spandrels Conclusion Cross-References References Video-Task Paradigm View Screen View-Based Homing Cross-References References Vigilance References Violence Virtual Reality Experiments Synonyms Definition Introduction Components and Considerations Benefits of Virtual Reality Experiments Limitations and Common Criticisms of Virtual Reality Conclusion Cross-References References Visible Characteristics Visible Displacement Synonyms Definition Introduction Experimental Methods Visible Displacement in Animals Limitations Conclusion Cross-References References Vision Visual Attention Visual Attention Paradigm Visual Cells Visual Cliff, The Definition Introduction History of the Visual Cliff Stimulus Cues The Importance of Locomotion The Importance of Environment Ecological Considerations Conclusions Cross-References References Visual Coding Visual Completion Visual Detection Task Definition Introduction Assessing Visual Detection Applications Factors Affecting Visual Detection Conclusion Cross-References References Visual Illusions Visual Interpolation Visual Pathways Visual Perception Synonyms Definition and Psychological Perspectives on Visual Perception Visual Biology, Perception, and Cognition Color Perception Neurology of Color Perception Theories of Color Perception Individual Differences Development of Visual Perception Comparative Evolutionary Analysis in Visual Perception Cross-References References Visual Predator Identification Visual Prey Identification Visual Processing Visual Recognition in Birds Introduction External Organization of Visual Fields Visual Recognition via Imprinting Processing of Information in the Brain Facial Recognition: the Cognitive Dimension Cross-References References Visual Recognition of Prey and Predators Synonyms Definition Introduction Vision Recognition The Visual System and Predator Detection Visual Acuity The Visual Field Visual Resolution The Cognitive Ecology of Predator Recognition Prey Recognition Prey Characteristics and Recognition by Predators Conclusion Cross-References References Visual Search Introduction Visual Search in the Laboratory Steps and Mechanisms of Visual Search Cross-References References Visual Self-Recognition Synonyms Definition The Importance of Visual Self-Recognition How to Test for Visual Self-Recognition? Which Species Show Visual Self-Recognition? The Evolution of Visual Self-Recognition Controversies Appropriate and Inappropriate Testing Procedures Psychological Mechanisms Function Future Challenges Cross-References References Visual Sensation Visuospatial Memory Visuospatial Sketchpad VNTRs Vocal Duels Vocal Interaction Vocal Mimicry Vocalization Voluntary Animal Approach Voluntary Approach Test W W.D. Hamilton Waist to Hip Ratio Waist-Hip Ratio Synonyms Definition Waist-Hip Ratio Determining Waist-Hip Ratio Waist-Hip Ratio and Health Waist-Hip Ratio and Human Attractiveness Conclusion References Walking Reflex Warning Synonyms Definition Introduction The Principle The Signal Unprofitability Mimicry Evolutionary Paradoxes Cross-References References Warning Coloration Warning Displays Warning Signals Washoe Introduction Cross-Fostering with Chimpanzees Project Washoe: The Early Years Adulthood Method Matters: A Response to Critics Similarities with Human Language Summary Cross-References References Water Balance Synonyms Introduction Pathways and Processes of Water Exchange Inputs of Water Adaptations for Conservation of Water The Importance of Behavior Cross-References References Waterbirds Waterfowl Synonyms Definition Introduction Taxonomy Anatomy, Morphology, and Adaptations Feeding and Diet Distribution and Habitat Migration Sociality and Flocking Mating Systems Courtship, Nesting, and Incubation Chick Rearing and Parental Investment Relationship with Humans and Domestication Conservation Conclusion Cross-References References Wayfinding WCST Weaning Synonyms Definition Introduction Gradual Weaning Sudden Weaning Baby-Led Weaning Mother-Led Weaning Conclusion References Weasel Family Weasels Web Construction West Indian Manatee WGTA Whale Whole Whole Genome Amplification Introduction What Is WGA? LA PCR IRS PCR PEP PCR DOP PCR MDA WGA in Diagnostics and Research Limitations of WGA References Wild Ursid Management Wildfowl Wildlife Wilhelm Wundt Preface Biography and Impact Psychological Science´s Beginnings The Wundtian Method Wundtian Psychology Wundt´s Animal Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References William Donald Hamilton Synonyms Definition Cross-References References William Hopkins Title of Entry Introduction Biography Laterality: Behavioral and Cerebral Asymmetries in Great Apes Ape Communication Evolution of Language Cross-References References William James Definition Introduction: Life and Works An Education in Evolution From Lamarckism to Darwinism The Emotions Reflex Action, Will, and Freedom Habit, Morality, and the Self The Stream of Consciousness Radical Empiricism Religion and the Will to Believe Pragmatism Conclusion Cross-References References William Roberts References William Timberlake Cross-References References Wisconsin Card-Sorting Task Synonyms Definition History Modern Applications Variants Cross-References References Wisconsin Card-Sorting Test Wisconsin General Test Apparatus Synonyms Cross-References References Wish Withdrawal Synonyms Definition Psychological Models of Withdrawal Behavioral Assessment of Withdrawal in Animal Models Conclusions Cross-References References Within-Group WKPRC Woese´s Three Domains of Cellular Life Synonyms The Taxonomic Structure of the Living World References Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) Cross-References References Wolfgang Köhler Primate Research Center Synonyms Definition Introduction Wolfgang Köhler Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Leipzig Zoo Directors and Research Coordinator Animals Facilities Enrichment Animal Keepers Research Conclusion Cross-References References Wolfgang Köhler Research Center Woolly Mammoth Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Origins Life History of the Woolly Mammoth Morphological Adaptations Factors That Led to Their Extinction Conclusion Cross-References References Working Dogs Working Memory Definition Introduction Multicomponent Model of Working Memory What Is Working Memory? Working Memory Capacity Where Is Working Memory in the Brain? Cross-References References World World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Introduction History Current Projects in the Twenty-First Century Research Areas Reports Cross-References References X Xenophilia Synonyms Definition Introduction Mating Genetic Relatives Domestication Unicoloniality Conclusion Cross-References References Xenophobia Synonyms Definition Introduction Resource Availability Lethal Raiding Sex Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Xenotransplant Xenotransplantation Synonyms Definition Introduction History Types of Xenotransplantation Barriers to Transplantation Advantages and Disadvantages of Xenotransplantation Advantages Disadvantages Statistics/Literature Available Use of Biotechnology in Xenotransplantation Future Aspects Cross-References References X-Linked Trait Introduction Sex Linked Traits X-Linked Traits X-Linked Recessive Inheritance Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency Color Blindness Hemophilia Case Study: Hemophilia in Queen Victoria Family X-Linked Dominant Inheritance X Linked Hypophosphatemia (XLH) Fragile-X-Syndrome Craniofrontonasal Dysplasia X-Linked Traits in Other Animals Y-Linked Traits Cross-References References Y Yangochiroptera Yellow-Spotted Rock Hyrax Yerkes Primate Research Center Synonyms Introduction Directors History National Institutes of Health Vision, Mission, and Values Regulatory Bodies Animals Research Cross-References References Yerkes Research Center Yinpterochiroptera Youth Z ZAA Zebras Zero Concept Definition Introduction Children´s Understanding and Use of Zero Nonhuman Animals and Absence Nonhumans and Zero-Like Concepts Conclusion Cross-References References Zigzag Zigzag Display Synonyms Definition Introduction Breeding Behavior Predator Avoidance (Escape Behavior) Conclusion Cross-References References Zinc Finger Nuclease Zöllner Illusion Cross-References References Zoo The First Priority Global Cooperation Wellness-Inspired Design Fewer Species/Living Well The Empirical Zoo Elevated Standards and Practices Lifetime Commitment The Lesson of Marius the Giraffe From Coping to Thriving Charismatic Megafauna Assessment of the Great Debate World Zoos and Mental Health Marketing Core Values Launching Ethical Arks The Bright Future of Zoos Cross-References References Zoological Association of America (ZAA) Synonyms Definition Zoology Invertebrates Phylum Porifera Phylum Cnidaria Phylum Ctenophora Phylum Platyhelminthes Phylum Nemertea or Rhynchocoela Phylum Rotifera Phylum Acanthocephala Phylum Gastrotricha Phylum Entoprocta Phylum Tardigrada Phylum Nematoda Phylum Nematomorpha Phylum Kinorhyncha (Ancient Phylum Echinoderida) Phylum Loricifera Phylum Priapulida Phylum Annelida Phylum Mollusca Phylum Arthropoda Phylum Echinodermata Vertebrates Phylum Hemichordata Phylum Chordata Subphylum Tunicata (Urochordata) Subphylum Cephalochordata Subphylum Vertebrata or Craniata Class Agnatha Class Chondrichthyes Class Osteichthyes Class Amphibia Class Reptilia Class Aves Class Mammalia Cross-References References Zoonoses Synonyms Definition Introduction Zoonotic Pathogens Routes of Transmission Risk Factors Cross-References References Zoonotic Diseases Zootomy Zygote Synonyms Definition Main Text Pronuclear Formation Epigenetic Reprogramming of Zygote Conclusion Cross-References References