Chemistry at a Glance

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Cover Copyright Contents Preface Acknowledgements Chapter 1: Chemical Arithmetic 1.1 Mole Concept 1.1.1 Application of Avogadro Vs Hypothesis 1.1.2 Different Ways of Expressing Mole 1.2 Laws of Chemical Combination 1.3 Terms Used in Stoichiometry 1.4 Law of Chemical Equivalence 1.5 Equivalent Mass 1.6 Method of Determining Equivalent Weight 1.7 Methods of Determining Atomic Weight 1.8 Empirical and Molecular Formula 1.9 Volumetric Analysis 1.10 Volume Strength of H2O2 1.11 Per Cent Strength of Oleum Chapter 2: Atomic Structure 2.1 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 2.2 Discovery of Cathode and Anode Rays 2.2.1 Determination of the Ratio of Charge to Mass (E/M) of Electron 2.3 Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment 2.4 Discovery of Atomic Number 2.5 Rutherford’s Atomic Model 2.5.1 Rutherford’s Experiment (1908–1909) 2.5.2 Rutherford’s Nuclear Atomic Model (1911) 2.5.3 Significances of Rutherford’s Atomic Model 2.5.3.1 Calculation of Distance of Closest Approach or Effective Nuclear Radius 2.5.3.2 Calculation of Radius of Nucleus 2.5.3.3 Number of a Particles Striking At an Angle ᶿ 2.5.4 Demerits of Rutherford’s Atomic Model 2.6 Quantum Theory 2.7 Bohr’s Atomic Model 2.7.1 Bohr’s Atomic Model 2.7.2 Significances or (Merits) of Bohr’S Atomic Model 2.7.2.1 The Radius of the Orbits or the Size of the Atom 2.7.2.2 Velocity of the Electron 2.7.2.3 Frequency of Revolution 2.7.2.4 Energy of the Electron 2.8 Electronic Spectrum 2.8.1 Line Spectrum of Hydrogen 2.8.2 Determination of Ionization Potential (IP) Orionization Energy (IE) 2.9 Demerits of Bohr’s Atomic Model 2.10 Photoelectric Effect 2.10.1 Work Function or Threshold Energy 2.10.2 Stopping Potential 2.10.3 Laws of Photoelectric Effect 2.11 Duality of Matter 2.12 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 2.13 Wave Mechanical Model 2.14 Shape of Orbital 2.14.1 Hund’S Rule 2.15 Electronic Configuration of Ion 2.16 Diamagnetic and Paramagnetic Substances 2.16.1 Diamagnetic Substances ↿⇂ (Paired Spin) 2.16.2 Paramagnetic Substances ↿ (Parallel Spin) Chapter 3: Gaseous State 3.1 States of Matter 3.2 Characteristic Properties of Gases 3.2.1 Unit of Volume 3.2.2 Pressure 3.3 Gas Laws 3.3.1 Boyle’s Law 3.3.2 Charle’s Law 3.4 Gay Lussac’s Law or Amonton’S Law 3.4.1 Avogadro’s Law 3.4.2 Combined Law 3.5 Ideal Gas Equation 3.6 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure 3.7 Amagat’s Law of Partial Volume 3.8 Diffusion and Effusion 3.9 Kinetic Theory of Gases 3.9.1 Kinetic Gas Equation 3.10 Various Speed Terms Used for Gases 3.11 Real Gases 3.12 Compressibility Factor 3.13 Van Der Waal Gas Equation 3.14 Critical Terms Used For Gases Chapter 4: Thermodynamics 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Terms Used in Thermodynamics 4.1.2 Types of System 4.1.3 Thermodynamic Properties 4.1.4 State Function or State Variable 4.1.5 Path Function and Path Variables 4.1.6 Thermodynamic Process 4.1.7 Thermodynamic Equilibrium 4.2 First Law of Thermodynamics 4.2.1 Internal Energy 4.2.2 Work Done in Expansion or Compression 4.2.3 Heat Supplied 4.2.4 Enthalpy 4.3 Molar Heat Capacity 4.3.1 Special Case of First Law of Thermodynamics: Isothermal Expansion of an Ideal Gas 4.3.2 Work Done in Reversible Isothermal Expansion 4.3.3 Work Done in Irreversible Isothermal Expansion 4.3.4 Adiabatic Expansion 4.4 Joule–Thomson Effect 4.4.1 Joule-Thomson Coefficient 4.4.2 Carnot Engine 4.4.3 Spontaneous Process 4.4.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics 4.4.5 Entropy of the System 4.4.6 Entropy of Physical Changes 4.4.7 Helmholtz Free Energy Change 4.5 Thermochemistry 4.5.1 Heat of Reaction or Enthalpy of Reaction 4.5.1.1 Factors Which Influence the Heat of Reaction 4.5.2 Enthalpy of Formation or Heat of Formation 4.5.3 Enthalpy of Combustion 4.5.4 Enthalpy of Solution 4.5.5 Enthalpy of Neutralization 4.5.6 Enthalpy of Fusion 4.5.7 Enthalpy of Sublimation 4.6 Hess’s Law of Constant Heat Summation 4.7 Bond Energy and Bond Enthalpy 4.7.1 Applications of Bond Energy 4.8 Influence of Temperature on the Heat of Reaction Chapter 5: Chemical Equilibrium 5.1 Characteristics of Equilibrium State 5.1.1 Characteristics of Equilibrium State 5.2 Law of Mass Action 5.3 Relationship Between Various Equilibrium Constants 5.4 Effect of Algebraic Operation on Equilibrium Constant 5.5 Mass Action Ratio, I.E., Reaction Quotient 5.6 Spontaneity of a Reaction 5.7 Heterogeneous Equilibria 5.8 Degree of Dissociation 5.8.1 Determination of Degree of Dissociation by Measurementof Vapour Denisty 5.9 Le Chatelier’S Principle and Its Application Chapter 6: Ionic Equilibrium 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Limitation of Arrhenius Theory 6.1.2 Proton Transfer Theory (Bronsted and Lowry Concept) 6.1.3 Conjugate Acids and Bases 6.1.4 Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases 6.1.5 Classification of Acids 6.1.5.1 Acidic Strength of Oxyacids 6.2 Arrhenius Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation 6.2.1 Strong and Weak Electrolytes 6.2.2 Factors Influencing Degree of Dissociation 6.2.3 Ostwald Dilution Law 6.3 The pH Value and pH Scale 6.3.1 pH of Strong Acids or Strong Bases 6.3.2 Ph of Weak Acids and Weak Bases 6.3.3 Common Ion Effect 6.4 Buffer Solutions 6.4.1 Buffer of a Weak Acid and Its Salt With a Strong Base 6.4.2 Buffer of a Weak Base and Its Salt With a Strong Acid 6.4.2.1 Salient Features of Buffer Solutions 6.4.2.2 Uses of Buffer Solution 6.5 Volumetric Titrations 6.5.1 Indicators 6.5.2 Theory of Indicators 6.6 Salt Hydrolysis 6.6.1 Salt of a Strong Acid and a Weak Base 6.6.2 Salt of a Weak Acid and a Strong Base 6.6.3 Salt of a Weak Acid and Weak Base 6.6.4 Salt of a Strong Acid and a Strong Base 6.7 Solubility And Solubility Product 6.7.1 Solubility Product 6.7.2 Applications of Solubility Product Principle Chapter 7: Solution and Colligative Properties 7.1 Definition 7.1.1 Components of a Solution 7.2 Concentration Measurement Units 7.2.1 Relationship Between Various Concentration Measurement Units 7.3 Solubility 7.4 Factors Affecting Solubility of Gases in Liquid 7.4.1 Applications of Henry’s Law 7.4.2 Limitations of Henry’s Law 7.5 Vapour Pressure 7.5.1 Factors Affecting Vapour Pressure 7.5.2 Ideal and Non-Ideal Solution 7.5.3 Raoult’s Law 7.5.4 Fractional Distillation 7.6 Colligative Properties 7.7 Osmotic Pressure 7.7.1 Applications of Osmotic Pressure 7.8 Elevation in Boiling Point 7.9 Depression in Freezing Point 7.10 Abnormal Colligative Properties 7.10.1 Van’t Hoff Factor 7.10.2 Degree of Dissociation Chapter 8: Solid State 8.1 Definition 8.2 Classification of Solids 8.2.1 Comparative Study Between Crystalline Andamorphous Solids 8.2.2 Classification of Crystalline Solid 8.3 Analysis of Crystalline Solid 8.3.1 Crystal 8.3.2 Types of Unit Cells 8.3.3 Types of Crystal System and Bravais Lattice 8.4 Bragg’s Equation 8.5 Lattice Point and Their Contribution Per Unit Cell 8.6 Analysis of Bravais Lattices Belonging Tocubic System 8.7 Closest Packing of Sphere 8.7.1 Two-Dimensional Lattice 8.7.2 Three-Dimensional Lattice 8.8 Hexagonal Closed Packed Structure 8.9 Analysis of Voids 8.9.1 Coordination Number 8.9.2 Primary Coordination Number 8.10 Radius Ratio 8.10.1 Secondary Coordination Number 8.11 Density of Solid 8.12 Analysis of Various Ionic Structures 8.13 Imperfection or Defects in Solids 8.14 Magnetic Properties of Solids 8.15 Dielectric Properties of Solids 8.16 Silicates 8.16.1 Types of Silicates Chapter 9: Chemical Kinetics 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Rate of Reaction 9.3 Average and Instantaneous Rate of Reaction 9.3.1 Graphical Method For Determination of Rate of Reaction 9.3.2 Dependency of Rate Equation on Stoichiometry 9.4 Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction 9.4.1 Concentration of the Reactants 9.4.2 Surface Area of the Reactants 9.4.3 Catalyst 9.4.4 Temperature 9.5 Elementary and Non-Elementary Reactions 9.5.1 Elementary Reactions 9.5.2 Non-Elementary Reaction 9.6 Order of Reaction 9.7 Molecularity of Reaction 9.8 Rate Constant of the Reaction 9.9 Differential Rate Law of a Reaction 9.10 Integrated Rate Law of a Reaction 9.10.1 First-Order Reactions 9.10.2 Second-Order Reactions 9.10.3 Nth-Order Reaction 9.10.4 Zero-Order Reaction 9.11 Half Life Time of a Reaction 9.11.1 t1/2 For a First-Order Reaction 9.11.2 t1/2 For a Second-Order Reaction 9.11.3 t1/2 of a Zero-Order Reaction 9.11.4 t1/2 of a Nth-Order Reaction 9.12 Experimental Method for Determination of Rate Law 9.12.1 Volumetric Method 9.12.1.1 Decomposition of H2O2 9.13 Pressure Change Method 9.14 Volume Measurement Method 9.14.1 In Terms of Rotation of Optically Active Species 9.15 Temperature-Dependent Term of a Rate Equation 9.15.1 Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rates 9.16 Collision Theory 9.16.1 Activation Energy 9.16.2 Energy Barrier 9.16.3 Effective Collision 9.16.4 Collision Frequency 9.17 The Arrhenius Theory 9.18 Photochemical Reactions 9.18.1 Characteristic of Photochemical Reactions Chapter 10: Electrochemistry 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Electrical Conduction 10.3 Electrolytic Cell and Electrolysis 10.3.1 Electrolysis 10.3.2 Prediction of Product of Electrolysis 10.3.2.1 Preferential Discharge Theory 10.4 Conductance Measurement 10.5 Variation of Molar Conductance with Concentration 10.6 Kohlrausch’s Law 10.7 Electrochemical or Galvanic Cell 10.8 Electrode 10.8.1 Electrode Potential 10.8.2 Types of Electrodes 10.8.2.1 Gas-Ion Electrode 10.9 Nernst Equation 10.9.1 Applications of Nernst Equation 10.10 Commercial Cells 10.11 Electrochemical Series 10.12 Applications of Electrochemical Series 10.12.1 Reactivity of Metals 10.12.2 Electropositive Character of Metals 10.12.3 Displacement Reactions 10.13 Corrosion Chapter 11: Nuclear Chemistry 11.1 Nuclear Chemistry 11.2 Nucear Force 11.2.1 Magic Numbers 11.3 Kinetics of Radioactive Disintegration 11.4 Half-Life Period 11.4.1 Average Life Period 11.4.2 Units of Radioactivity 11.5 Radioactive Disintegration Series 11.5.1 Parallel Path Decay 11.5.1.1 n/p Ratio 11.5.1.2 Analysis of Curve 11.5.2 Packing Fraction 11.5.2.1 Significances of Packing Fraction 11.5.2.2 Analysis of Curve 11.5.3 Binding Energy Per Nucleon 11.5.4 Significance of Binding Energy Per Nucleon 11.6 Artificial Transmutation 11.7 Nuclear Fission 11.8 Nuclear Reactor 11.9 Nuclear Fusion Chapter 12: Surface Chemistry 12.1 Definition 12.1.1 Characteristics of Catalysis 12.1.2 Classification of Catalysis 12.1.2.1 Homogeneous Catalysis 12.1.2.2 Heterogeneous Catalysis 12.1.3 Effect of a Catalyst 12.1.4 Catalytic Poisoning or Inhibitor For Catalyst 12.2 Acid–Base Catalysis 12.3 Enzyme Catalysis 12.3.1 Characteristics of an Enzyme Catalyst 12.3.2 Mechanism of Enzyme-Catalysed Reactions 12.4 Theory of Catalysis 12.4.1 Intermediate Compound Formation Theory 12.4.1.1 Adsorption Theory 12.4.1.2 Desorption 12.4.1.3 Occlusion 12.4.1.4 Sorption 12.4.1.5 Positive Adsorption 12.4.1.6 Negative Adsorption 12.4.2 Characteristics of Adsorption 12.5 Freundlich Adsorption Isotherm 12.5.1 Analysis of Adsorption Isotherm 12.6 Colloidal Solution 12.6.1 Comparative Study Between True Sols, Colloidal Solutions and Suspension 12.6.2 Phases of Colloids 12.6.2.1 Dispersed Phase 12.6.2.2 Dispersion Medium 12.6.3 Types of Colloidal System 12.7 Classification of Colloids 12.7.1 Based Upon Appearance 12.7.2 Based Upon Charge 12.7.2.1 Positive and Negative Charged Sol 12.7.3 Based on Interaction or Affinity of Phases 12.7.3.1 Lyophilic Colloids 12.7.3.2 Lyophobic Colloids 12.7.4 Based on Molecular Size 12.7.4.1 Multimolecular Colloids 12.7.4.2 Macromolecular Colloids 12.7.4.3 The Associated Colloids or Micelles 12.8 Properties of Colloidal Solutions 12.8.1 Physical Properties 12.8.1.1 Heterogeneity 12.8.1.2 Filterability 12.8.1.3 Non-Settling Nature 12.8.1.4 Colour 12.8.2 Mechanical Properties 12.8.2.1 Brownian Movement 12.8.3 Optical Properties (Tyndall Effect) 12.8.3.1 Condition For Tyndall Effect 12.8.4 Electrical Properties 12.8.4.1 Electrical Double Layer 12.9 Coagulation 12.9.1 Hardy-Schulze Rules 12.10 Protective Colloids 12.10.1 Gold Number 12.11 Emulsion 12.11.1 Classification of Emulsion 12.11.1.1 Oil in Water Type 12.11.1.2 Water in Oil Type 12.11.2 Distinction Between Two Types of Emulsion 12.11.2.1 Dye Test 12.11.2.2 Conductivity Test 12.11.2.3 Dilution Test 12.11.3 Preparation of Emulsion (Emulsification) 12.11.4 Uses of Emulsion 12.12 Gels 12.13 Applications of Colloidal Solution 12.13.1 Medicine 12.13.2 Smoke Screens 12.13.3 Formation of Delta 12.13.4 Purification of Water 12.13.5 Artificial Rain 12.13.6 Sewage Disposal 12.13.7 Blue Colour of the Sky 12.14 Preparation of Colloidal Solutions 12.14.1 Preparation of Lyophilic Sols 12.14.2 Preparation of Lyophobic Solutions Chapter 13: Periodic Classification 13.1 Long form of Periodic Table 13.1.1 Characteristics of Modern Periodic Table 13.1.2 Advantages of MPT Over Mendeleef’s Periodic Table Chapter 14: Chemical Bonding 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Theory of Chemical Bonding 14.3 Electrovalent or Ionic Bond 14.3.1 Characteristic of Ionic Compounds 14.4 Covalent Bond 14.4.1 Covalency 14.4.2 Lewis Dot Structure 14.4.3 Characteristics of Covalent Compounds 14.4.4 Coordinate Covalent Bond 14.5 The Valence Bond Theory 14.5.1 Heitler and London Concept 14.5.2 Pauling and Slater Extension 14.5.3 Types of Overlapping and Nature of Covalent Bonds 14.6 Hybridization 14.6.1 Characteristics of Hybridization 14.6.2 Type of Hybridization 14.7 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory 14.8 Molecular Orbital Theory 14.8.1 Important Features of MOT 14.8.2 Conditions for Atomic Orbitals to form Molecular Orbitals 14.8.3 Relative Energies of Molecular Orbitals and Filling of e- 14.8.3.1 Stability of Molecules in Terms of Bond Order 14.9 Covalent Character in Ionic Compounds: Fazan’s Rule 14.9.1 Applications of Fazan’s Rule (Ionic Potential F) 14.10 Dipole Moment 14.10.1 Characteristic of Dipole Moment 14.10.2 Application of Dipole Moment 14.10.2.1 In Determination of Polarity of Bonds 14.10.2.2 In Determination of Per Cent Ionic Character 14.11 Hydrogen Bonding 14.11.1 Condition for Hydrogen Bonding 14.11.2 Types of Hydrogen Bonding 14.11.2.1 Intermolecular Hydrogen Bonding 14.11.2.2 Intramolecular Hydrogen Bonding 14.11.3 Examples of Hydrogen Bonding 14.11.4 Effect of Hydrogen Bonding 14.12 Van Der Waal’s Forces 14.12.1 Ion–Dipole Attraction 14.12.2 Dipole–Dipole Attraction 14.12.3 Ion-Induced Dipole Attraction 14.12.4 Dipole-Induced Dipole Attraction 14.12.5 Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole Attraction Chapter 15: S-Block Elements 15.1 Alkali Metals 15.2 Trends in Properties 15.3 Preparation of Naoh 15.3.1 Nelson Process 15.3.2 Castener- Kellner Process 15.3.3 Preparation of Sodium Carbonate 15.3.4 Preparation of Alkali Metals 15.4 Alkaline Earth Metals 15.4.1 Chemical Properties 15.4.2 Nature of Hydroxides 15.4.3 Diagonal Relationship Between Be and Al 15.4.4 Anomalous Behaviour of Be Key Points Chapter 16: P-Block Elements 16.1 Group 13 (Boron Family) Key Points 16.2 Group 14 (Carbon Family} 16.2.1 Oxides 16.3 Allotropes of Carbon 16.4 Diamond 16.5 Graphite 16.5.1 Fullerenes 16.6 Zeolites 16.7 Silicates 16.7.1 Type of Silicates 16.8 Group 15 Elements (Nitrogen Family) 16.8.1 Important Compounds of Nitrogen Family 16.8.1.1 Action of Hno3 With Metal 16.9 Group 16 Elements (Oxygen Family) 16.9.1.1 Halides 16.9.1.2 Dioxygen (O2) 16.9.1.3 Ozone 16.10 Group 17 Elements (Halogen Family) 16.10.1 Comparison of Halogens 16.11 Interhalogen Compounds 16.12 Group 18 Elements (Noble Gases) 16.13 Compounds of Xenon 16.13.1 Uses of Noble Gases Chapter 17: D- and F- Block Elements 17.1 D-Block (Transition Elements) 17.1.1 Electronic Configuration 17.1.2 Physical Properties 17.1.3 Variation in Atomic and Ionic Sizes 17.1.4 Density 17.1.5 Ionization Energy 17.1.6 Standard Electrode Potentials 17.1.7 Oxidation State 17.1.8 Complexes 17.1.9 Chemical Reactivity and E° Values 17.1.10 Oxides/Hydroxides 17.1.11 Colour 17.1.12 Magnetic Properties 17.1.13 Interstitial Compounds 17.1.14 Catalytic Properties 17.1.15 Alloy Formation 17.2 F-Block (Inner-Transition Elements) 17.2.1 Oxidation States 17.2.2 Actinides Chapter 18: Metallurgical Extraction 18.1 Introduction 18.1.1 Important Ores of Some Metals 18.1.2 Other Important Ores 18.2 Metallurgical Operation 18.3 Reduction Conversion of Ore to Metal 18.4 Ellingham Diagram 18.4.1 Important Features of Ellingham Diagrams 18.5 Refining or Purification of Metal 18.5.1 Electrolytic Refining 18.5.2 Liquation Process 18.5.3 Distillation Method 18.5.4 Heating of Crude form with Ores 18.5.5 Oxidation Process 18.6 Extraction of Iron 18.6.1 Extraction of Iron 18.6.2 Types of Iron 18.6.3 Steel 18.7 Manufacture of Steel 18.8 Heat Treatment of Steel 18.9 Extraction of Tin 18.9.1 Refining of Tin 18.10 Extraction of Copper 18.11 Extraction of Lead 18.12 Extraction of Magnesium 18.13 Extraction of Aluminium 18.14 Extraction of Silver and Gold 18.14.1 Mac Arthur Forest Process Chapter 19: Coordination Compounds 19.1 Coordination Compounds 19.1.1 Addition Compound 19.1.2 Classification of Addition Compounds 19.2 Werner’s Coordination Theory 19.2.1 Ligands 19.2.1.1 Classification of Ligands 19.3 Coordination Number of Metal Ions 19.4 Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 19.4.1 Structural Isomerism 19.5 Stereo Isomerism 19.5.1 Geometrical Isomerism 19.5.2 Optical Isomerism 19.6 Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds 19.6.1 Effective Atomic Number 19.7 Bonding in Complexes 19.7.1 Valence Bond Theory 19.7.2 Limitations of Valence Bond Theory 19.7.3 Crystal Field Theory 19.7.4 Formation of an Octahedral Complex 19.7.5 Formation of a Square Planar Complex 19.7.6 Formation of Tetrahedral Complexes 19.7.7 Calculation of Cfse 19.7.7.1 Magnetic Nature 19.7.8 Colour 19.8 Stability of Coordination Compounds in Solutions 19.9 Importance of Coordination Compounds 19.9.1 Analytical Chemistry 19.10 Metallurgical Operations 19.10.1 Photography 19.10.2 Electroplating 19.11 Biological Processes 19.12 In Medicinal Field 19.13 Organometallic Compounds 19.13.1 Classification of Organometallic Compounds 19.13.1.1 Sigma Bonded Organometallic Compounds 19.13.1.2 π-Bonded Organometallic Compounds 19.13.1.3 σ-and π-Bonded Organometallic Compounds Chapter 20: Salt Analysis 20.1 Introduction 20.1.1 Physical Appearance of Inorganic Salt 20.1.2 Characteristic Colour Changes in Hot and Cold 20.1.3 Action of Heat 20.1.4 Solubility of Salts 20.1.5 Colour of the Sublimate 20.2 Dry Tests 20.2.1 Classification of Ores 20.2.2 Flame Test 20.2.3 Borax Bead Test 20.2.4 Charcoal Cavity Test 20.2.5 Microcosmic Salt Bead Test 20.2.6 Cobalt Nitrate Charcoal Test 20.2.7 Mirror Test 20.3 Test for Acid Radicals Chapter 21: Nomenclature Oforganic Compounds 21.1 Classification of Organic Compounds 21.1.1 Acyclic Compounds 21.1.2 Cyclic Compounds 21.2 System of Nomenclature for Organic Compounds 21.2.1 Trivial System or Derived System 21.2.2 Iupac Name or Standard System 21.2.2.1 Secondary Suffix 21.3 Rules for Writing Nomenclature of Organic Compoundshaving no Functional Group 21.3.1 Selection of Principal Chain 21.3.2 Numbering of Principal Chain 21.4 Rules for Iupac Nomenclature of Unsaturatedhydrocarbons 21.5 Iupac Nomenclature of Compounds Containingfunctional Group 21.5.1 Chain Terminating Functional Group 21.5.2 Nonchain Terminating Functional Group 21.6 Rules for Iupac Nomenclature of Polyfunctional Compounds 21.6.1 Principal Functional Groups 21.6.2 Selection of the Principal Chain 21.6.3 Numbering of Principal Chain 21.6.4 Alphabetical Order 21.7 Nomenclature of Bicyclo and Spiro Compounds 21.7.1 Bicyclic Compounds 21.7.2 Spiro Compounds 21.8 Common Name of Organic Compounds Chapter 22: Isomerism 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Structural Isomerism I 22.3 Structural Isomerism II 22.4 Stereoisomerism 22.4.1 Conformational Isomerism 22.5 Geometrical Isomerism 22.5.1 Cis-Trans Isomerism 22.5.2 E-Z Isomerism 22.5.2.1 Sequence Rule 22.5.3 Syn-Anti Isomerism 22.6 Optical Isomerism 22.7 Terms used in Optical Isomerism Chapter 23: General Organicchemistry 23.1 Introduction 23.1.1 Dipole–Dipole Interactions 23.1.2 Van Der Waal’s Forces 23.1.3 Hydrogen Bonding 23.1.3.1 Condition For H-Bonding 23.1.4 Substrate and Reagent 23.1.5 Reaction Mechanism 23.2 Types of Reagents 23.2.1 Electrophiles 23.2.2 Nucleophiles 23.3 Electronic Displacement Effect 23.3.1 Inductive Effect 23.3.2 Electromeric Effect 23.3.3 Resonance 23.3.3.1 Condition for Resonance 23.3.4 Hyperconjugation Effect 23.4 Reaction Intermediates 23.4.1 Carbocations 23.4.2 Carbanions 23.4.3 Free Radicals 23.4.4 Carbenes 23.4.5 Benzyne 23.4.6 Nitrenes (R – N..) Chapter 24: Organicreactions 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Elimination Reaction 24.2.1 Characteristics 24.3 E1 CB Reaction (Carbanionic Elimination) 24.3.1 Conditions For E1 Cb 24.3.2 Pyrolysis of Ester 24.4 General Reaction Mechanism 24.5 Characteristics of Sn2 Reaction 24.5.1 Characteristics of Sn1 Reaction 24.5.2 Internal Nucleophilic Substitution (Sni) 24.6 Rearrangement Reaction 24.7 Claisen Rearrangement 24.8 Benzidine Rearrangement 24.9 Fries Rearrangement 24.10 Condensation Reaction 24.11 Aldol Condensation 24.11.1 Classification of Aldol Condensation 24.12 Perkin’s Condensation 24.14 Knoevenagel Reaction 24.15 Claisen Condensation 24.16 Reformatsky Reaction 24.17 Darzen’s Glycidic Ester Condensation 24.18 Cannizzaro Reaction 24.19 Intermolecular Cannizzaro Reaction 24.20 Intramolecular Cannizzaro Reaction or Intervalcannizzaro Reaction 24.21 Tishchenko Reaction 24.22 Benzoin Condensation 24.23 Alkane 24.24 Alkene 24.25 Alkyne 24.26 Alkyl Halide 24.27 Alcohol and Ether 24.28 Aldehyde and Ketone Chapter 25: Biomolecules 25.1 Definition of Carbohydrates 25.2 Classification of Carbohydrates 25.2.1 Monosaccharides 25.2.2 Oligosaccharides 25.2.3 Polysaccharides 25.2.4 Reducing and Non-Reducing Sugars 25.3 Anomers 25.4 Epimers 25.4.1 Preparation of Glucose (Also Called Dextrose, Grape Sugar) 25.5 Structural Analysis of Glucose 25.6 Cyclic Structure of Glucose 25.7 Cyclic Structure of Fructose 25.8 Reaction of Glucose with Phenyl Hydrazineformation of Osazone 25.9 Lobry De Bruyn Van Ekenstein Rearrangement 25.10 Mutarotation 25.11 Haworth Projection 25.11.1 Haworth Projection for Fructose 25.11.2 Kiliani–Fischer Synthesis 25.11.3 Ruff Degradation 25.12 Glycosidic Linkage 25.12.1 Sucrose (Invert Sugar) 25.12.2 Haworth Projection of Sucrose 25.13 Maltose 25.14 Lactose (Milk Sugar) 25.15 Starch 25.16 Amino Acids 25.17 Essential Amino Acids 25.17.1 Non-Essential Amino Acids 25.17.2 Zwitter Ion Form of Amino Acids 25.17.3 Isoelectronic Point 25.17.4 Proteins 25.17.5 Peptide Linkage 25.17.6 Classification of Proteins 25.18 Denaturation of Proteins 25.19 Nucleoside 25.20 Nucleotide 25.21 Nucleic Acids (or Polynucletides) 25.21.1 Two Types of Nucleic Acids 25.22 Double Helix Structure of DNA 25.22.1 Charagoff’s Rule 25.22.2 Vitamins 25.22.3 Classification of Vitamins 25.22.4 Important Vitamins, their Sources and their Deficiency Chapter 26: Polymer 26.1 Introduction 26.1.1 Molecular Weight of Polymer 26.2 Classification of Polymers 26.2.1 Classification Based on Source 26.2.2 Classification Based on Structure of Polymers 26.2.3 Classification Based on Mode of Polymerization 26.2.4 Classification Based on Molecular Forces 26.2.5 Classification of Polymer on the Basis of Stereo Chemistry 26.3 Classification Based on Growth Polymerization 26.3.1 Addition Polymerization or Chain Growth Polymerization 26.3.2 Condensation Polymerization 26.3.2.1 Some Condensation Polymers 26.3.3 Copolymerization 26.4 Synthetic Rubbers Chapter 27: Analytical Test of Organic Compounds 27.1 Alkene and Alkyne 27.1.1 Bromine Water Test 27.1.2 Baeyer’s Reagent 27.1.3 Metal Alkynide Test 27.2 Alcohol 27.2.1 Dehydrogenation Test 27.2.2 Lucas Test 27.2.3 Victor Meyer’s Test 27.2.4 Iodoform Test 27.2.5 Ceric Ammonium Nitrate Test 27.3 Aldehyde and Ketone 27.3.1 2,4-DNP Test 27.3.2 Tollen’s Test 27.3.3 Fehling’s Test 27.3.4 Benedict’s Test 27.3.5 Schiff’s Test 27.4 Amines 27.4.1 Carbyl Amine Test 27.4.1.1 Azo Dye Test 27.4.2 Hinsberg’s Test 27.4.3 Hofmann’s Test 27.4.4 Hofmann’s Mustard Oil Test 27.4.5 Liebermann’s Nitroso Test 27.5 Protein Chemistry 27.5.1 Sanger’s Test 27.5.2 Ninhydrin Test