Neurology in Migrants and Refugees

Description

This book is the result of reflections and work of the Specialty group on neurology in migrants of the World Federation of Neurology. The volume provides a synthesis of migrants’ health in relation to the sustainable development goals and the 2030 agenda, and an up-to-date overview on neurological diseases among migrants, refugees and ethnic minorities. The book is composed of both general chapters dealing with the history of migration, the relationship between climate change and migration flows, the migration and neurosciences research and the barriers to migrant’s health. Other chapters deal with the migrants' particularities of the common neurological diseases such as cerebrovascular diseases, epilepsy, dementia, movement disorders, multiple sclerosis, headache, functional and mental disorders. In addition, also neurological manifestation of COVID-19 in ethnic minorities and palliative care in migrants are discussed. Neurology in Migrants and Refugees will be useful to neurologists worldwide who can find appropriate knowledge for diagnosis and treatment when facing migrants with neurological disorders which are sometimes difficult to assess in the absence of clinical experience with the migrant population. It will also be very useful for international organizations, policymakers and non-governmental organizations working in the field of health and migration. This book will certainly find an indispensable place in neurological departments libraries and will constitute a basic textbook for teaching neurology taking into account ethnicity, culture and health inequalities in the care of neurological disorders. Foreword Preface Contents Part I: Introductory Testimonies 1: Testimony: The Trauma of Migration. Considerations from a First-Line Doctor in Lampedusa References 2: Migration and Poetry Part II: Historical, Geography, and Health Problems of Migration 3: History of Migration 3.1 Migrant History 3.2 Late Pleistocene Innovations in Migration 3.3 Variations in Holocene Migration 3.4 Anthropocene Magnification of Migration 3.5 Future Changes in Migration 3.6 Conclusion: Functions of Migration References 4: Migration Across History 4.1 Migration in Deep Time 4.2 Approaches to the Study of Migration 4.3 Migration and Mobility to the Eighteenth Century 4.4 Nineteenth-Century Migration Systems 4.5 Mass Refugee Generation in the Twentieth Century 4.6 Migration After the 2008 Speculation Crisis 4.7 Conclusion: Transcultural Societal Studies References 5: History of North African Migration to Europe: The Case of Morocco 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Prehistory 5.3 History 5.4 The Protectorate Period 5.5 Contemporary Migrations 5.6 A Particular Migration: Moroccan Jewish Migration 5.7 Migration in France 5.8 Migration to the United Kingdom 5.9 Migration to Italy 5.10 Moroccans from Spain 5.11 Student Migration 5.12 Female Migration 5.13 Aging in Migration 5.14 Illegal Migration 5.15 Morocco, Country of Emigration 5.16 Geopolitics of Migration in Morocco 5.17 Conclusion Annex 1 Annex 2 References 6: Migration, Environment and Climate Change 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Environmental Stressors and Migrations 6.2.1 The Prehistoric Period 6.2.1.1 Migration as an Adaptive Evolutionary Strategy 6.2.1.2 The Expansion of the Genus Homo Out of Africa 6.2.1.3 Genetic Data on Prehistoric Migrations of Homo Sapiens into and Within Eurasia 6.2.2 Historic Events 6.2.3 Present Time (Twentieth–Twenty-First Centuries) 6.2.3.1 Seasonal Migrations and Nomadic Pastoralism 6.2.3.2 Rural/Urban Migrations and Internal Migrations 6.2.3.3 Environmental Refugees 6.3 Consequences of Migration on Native Populations and the Environment 6.3.1 Historical Approach of the Relations Among Newcomers/Natives/Local Environment 6.3.1.1 The New World 6.3.1.2 The Australian Case 6.3.2 Present Time: The Age of Migrations 6.3.3 Nutrition Environment and Culinary Traditions: A Lesson from the ALS-PDC 6.3.4 Long-Term Destiny of Migrants 6.4 Conclusions and Lessons Learned References 7: Child Migration and School Achievement 7.1 Introduction 7.2 To Go Away: Psychological Implication 7.3 Low Income, Cognitive Development and Chronic Stress Living 7.4 Social Isolation and Cognitive Development 7.5 Language as a Social Organizer 7.6 Executive Functions as Moderating Factor Between Socio-economic Disadvantage and School Achievement 7.7 From Vulnerability to Resilience 7.8 Recommendations on Education Policies Supporting Migrant Children 7.9 Conclusion References 8: Barriers to Health for Migrants and Refugees 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Migrants’ Burden of Diseases 8.2.1 Migration and Mortality 8.2.2 Communicable Diseases 8.2.3 Non-communicable Diseases 8.2.4 Mental Health 8.2.5 Aging Migrants 8.2.6 Women and Health 8.2.7 Child and Adolescent and Health 8.3 Social Determinants of Health 8.3.1 Political Determinants of Health 8.3.2 Cultural Determinants of Health 8.3.3 Migration as Social Determinant of Health 8.3.4 Racism as Determinant of Health 8.3.5 Data Collection to Identify Determinants of Health 8.4 Migration and Human Rights 8.4.1 The Right of Migrants to Health 8.4.2 Ensuring Limits to Health Restrictions on Entry 8.4.3 Migrants Detention, Human Rights, and Health 8.4.4 Labor Migrants and Human Rights 8.5 Recommendations 8.6 Conclusion References 9: Contribution of Migration and Refugees Research to Neurology and Neurosciences 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Numbers of Articles Reported by Pubmed on Immigration and Refugees and Neurology and Neurosciences 9.3 Neurologists in Training and Education Programs on Immigrant Health 9.4 Hosting Health System and Migration 9.5 Risk of Different Diseases in Migrants 9.5.1 Stroke and Cardiovascular Diseases 9.5.2 Dementia 9.5.3 Genetic Mutation in Health and in Neurodegenerative Diseases 9.6 Migration and the Risk of Multiple Sclerosis 9.7 Brain Functional MR Connectivity Changes 9.8 Children Migration and Child Refugees 9.9 Conclusions References 10: How Can Host Countries Provide Neurological Care to Migrants and Refugees? 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Global Neurological Care 10.3 Budgets for Neurological Disorders 10.4 Neurological Care 10.5 Conclusion References 11: Neurological and Mental Health Problems Among Refugees from South Asia 11.1 Introduction 11.2 A Brief History of Conflicts and Natural Disasters in South Asia 11.3 Defining Refugees, Asylum-Seekers, Internally Displaced Individuals and Migrants 11.4 Burden of Refugees and Asylum Seekers, Globally and in South Asia 11.5 Internally Displaced Individuals; Global and Regional Burden 11.6 Healthcare Challenges of the Forcibly Displaced Populations 11.7 Prevalence of Neurological Diseases in Displaced Populations 11.7.1 Acute and Infectious Neurological Conditions 11.7.2 Change of Focus Towards Chronic Neurological Conditions 11.8 Potential Solutions for Providing Neurological Care to Displaced Populations 11.9 Mental Health Diseases in Displaced Populations 11.9.1 Most Prevalent Mental Health Conditions 11.9.2 Factors Contributing to Mental Health Conditions in Forcibly Displaced Individuals 11.10 Finding Solutions for Mental Health Conditions 11.11 Towards a Better Tomorrow; Improving Health Outcomes in Displaced Populations 11.12 Global Health and the Role of International Organizations; Provision of Care, Training, Research, and Advocacy 11.13 Conclusion References Part III: Neurological Disorders in Migrants 12: Neuroinfectious Diseases in Migrants and Refugees 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Prevalence of Most Frequently Seen and Most Important Infectious Diseases Among Migrants and Refugees 12.2.1 Tuberculosis 12.2.2 AIDS 12.2.3 Antimicrobial-Resistance (AMR) and Migration 12.2.4 Hepatitis B and C (HBV and HCV) 12.2.5 Tropical Infections 12.2.6 The Issue of SARS-CoV2 (COVID-19) Pandemic and Migration 12.3 Infectious Diseases of the Nervous System 12.3.1 Viral Diseases of the Nervous System 12.3.1.1 HIV 12.3.2 Bacterial Diseases of the Nervous System 12.3.2.1 Central Nervous System (CNS-)Tuberculosis 12.3.3 Parasitic Diseases of the Nervous System 12.3.4 Fungal Diseases of the Nervous System 12.4 Screening First Arrival Migrants to Identify Common Infectious Diseases 12.5 Vaccination Among Refugees and Migrants 12.6 Conclusion References 13: The Devastating Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic Among Ethnic Minorities, Migrants, and Refugees 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Coronaviruses 13.2.1 SARS-CoV-2 and the COVID-19 Pandemic 13.3 Migration and COVID-19 13.3.1 External Migration 13.3.2 Internal Migration 13.4 COVID-19 Among Ethnic Minorities 13.5 Conclusions References 14: Cerebrovascular Risk Factors in Migrants and Refugees 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Cardiovascular Diseases and Risk Factors in Migrants and Refugees 14.3 Prevention of Cardiovascular Risk Factors 14.4 Conclusion References 15: Stroke in Migrants 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Epidemiology of Stroke in Migrants 15.2.1 Incidence and Prevalence in Migrant Population 15.3 Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Specific Causes in Migrant Populations 15.3.1 Hypertension 15.3.2 Diabetes 15.3.3 Dyslipidemia 15.3.4 Atrial Fibrillation 15.3.5 Other Specific Causes 15.4 Socioeconomic Status and Risk of Stroke 15.5 Stroke Type and Subtypes 15.6 Stroke Severity and Mortality 15.7 Stroke Care Access Disparities 15.8 Stroke Management in Acute Phase 15.8.1 Thrombolysis and Thrombectomy 15.8.2 Post Stroke Rehabilitation 15.8.3 Secondary Prevention 15.9 Conclusion References 16: Multiple Sclerosis in Migrants 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Methods 16.3 Results 16.3.1 MS Epidemiology Worldwide, in LMIC and in HIC 16.3.2 Migration and Multiple Sclerosis 16.3.2.1 Migration from Areas of High Risk of MS to Areas of Lower Risk South Africa Australia and New Zealand USA Canary Islands Japan Sudan 16.3.2.2 Migration from Areas of Low Risk of MS to Areas of Higher Risk France United Kingdom Norway United States of America Canada 16.3.2.3 Influence of Age at Migration on Risk of MS 16.3.2.4 Risk Change over Generations Change in Prevalence/Incidence Rates over Generations Change in Age Onset of MS over Generations Change in MS Severity over Generations 16.3.3 Particularities of MS in LMIC 16.3.4 Difficulties in MS Care in LMIC, Migrants and Ethnic Minorities with MS 16.4 Discussion 16.5 Conclusions References 17: Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders in Migrants 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Scope of the Migrant and Refugee Populations 17.3 What Is NMOSD? 17.4 Prevalence of NMOSD 17.5 Risk Factors and Relapse Rates for NMOSD in General and for Migrants 17.6 Diagnosis of NMOSD 17.7 Differential Diagnoses 17.8 AQP4 Serology 17.9 Treatment of NMOSD 17.10 Effects of Race and Migration on NMOSD 17.11 Conclusion References 18: Neurological Manifestations of Behçet’s Disease Related to Migration and Ethnicity 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Epidemiology of BD 18.2.1 Geographic Distribution of BD 18.2.2 Age and Gender in BD 18.2.3 Migration and BD 18.2.4 BD, Ethnicity and HLA B51 18.2.5 General Manifestations of BD 18.3 Neurological Manifestations of BD 18.3.1 Epidemiology of Neurological Manifestations of BD 18.3.2 Etiopathogenesis and Pathology 18.3.3 Clinical Manifestations 18.3.3.1 Parenchymal NBD *Brainstem Syndrome *Psychiatric and Cognitive Disorders *Headache *Epilepsy *Isolated Spinal Cord Involvement *Others Rare Manifestations 18.3.3.2 Non-parenchymal NBD *Cerebral Venous Thrombosis *Arterial Neuro-Behçet Syndrome 18.3.4 Neuroimaging 18.3.5 Differential Diagnosis 18.3.5.1 *Multiple Sclerosis (MS) 18.3.5.2 *Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder (NMOSD) 18.3.5.3 *Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) and Other Vasculitides 18.3.5.4 *Sarcoidosis 18.3.5.5 *CNS Infections 18.3.5.6 *Brainstem Glioma and Primary CNS Lymphoma 18.3.5.7 *Others Differential Diagnosis 18.3.6 Management of NBD 18.4 Conclusion References 19: Headache in Migrants and Refugees 19.1 Introduction 19.2 A Short History of Headache 19.3 Epidemiology of Headache 19.3.1 Prevalence 19.3.2 Socioeconomics and Cultural Factors 19.3.3 Triger and Risk Factors 19.4 Migration 19.5 Recommendations 19.6 Conclusion References 20: Epilepsy in Migrants 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Definition 20.3 Epidemiology 20.3.1 Race and Ethnicity 20.3.2 Burden of Epilepsy 20.3.3 Comorbidities of Epilepsy 20.4 Etiologies 20.4.1 Structural 20.4.2 Metabolic 20.4.3 Immune 20.4.4 Infection 20.4.4.1 Parasitic 20.4.4.2 Bacterial 20.4.4.3 Viral 20.4.5 Genetic 20.4.6 Pre-, Peri- and Post-Natal 20.5 Challenges 20.5.1 Diagnostic Challenges 20.5.2 Misdiagnosis 20.5.2.1 Seizure Mimics 20.5.3 Therapeutic Challenges 20.6 Future Perspectives 20.7 Conclusion References 21: Movement Disorders in Migrants 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Parkinson’s Disease 21.2.1 Global Burden of PD 21.2.2 Geographic Distribution of PD 21.2.3 Genetic Variability in PD 21.2.4 Clinical Phenotypes of PD Regarding Ethnicity 21.2.4.1 Motors Symptoms 21.2.4.2 Non-motor Symptoms 21.2.5 Disparities in the Treatment of PD 21.2.6 PD in Migrants 21.3 Functional Movement Disorders 21.4 Tardive Dyskinesia 21.5 Conclusion References 22: Cross-Cultural Cognitive Examination in Aging Migrants 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Cognitive Disorders in Aging Migrants 22.2.1 Prevalence of Cognitive Disorders in Aging Migrants 22.2.2 Risk Factors Associated with Cognitive Disorders in Migrants 22.2.3 Help-Seeking and Access to Services Among Aging Migrants 22.3 Barriers to Clinical Interview in Aging Migrants 22.3.1 Cognitive Examination with an Interpreter 22.4 Challenges in Cognitive Testing in Aging Migrants 22.4.1 Influence of Culture 22.4.1.1 Cultural Values 22.4.1.2 Culture-Dependent Test Elements 22.4.1.3 Acculturation 22.4.2 Influence of Language 22.4.2.1 Cognitive Testing with an Interpreter 22.4.2.2 Language Influences on Cognitive Test Performance 22.4.2.3 Bilingualism 22.4.3 Influence of Education 22.4.3.1 Education Influences on Cognitive Test Performance 22.4.3.2 Illiteracy 22.4.3.3 Test-Wiseness 22.5 Methods for Cross-Cultural Cognitive Examination in Aging Migrants 22.5.1 Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE) 22.5.2 Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment Scale (RUDAS) 22.5.3 Multicultural Cognitive Examination (MCE) 22.5.4 Cross-Cultural Dementia Screening (CCD) 22.5.5 European Cross-Cultural Neuropsychological Test Battery (CNTB) 22.6 Conclusion References 23: Dementia in Aging Migrants 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Epidemiology of Dementia and Cognitive Disorders in Migrants 23.3 Use of Dementia Resources and Facilities 23.4 Clinical Assessment of Cognitive Disorders in Migrants 23.4.1 Cognitive Assessment 23.4.2 Neuropsychological Assessment 23.4.3 Functional Assessment 23.4.4 Biomarker Assessment 23.5 Differential Diagnosis 23.6 Conclusions References 24: Anxiety and Depression in Migrants 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Depression and Anxiety in Migrants 24.2.1 Prevalence of Depression and Anxiety in Migrants 24.2.2 Depression and Anxiety: Risk Factors 24.2.3 Cultural Differences in Depression and Anxiety Among Migrants 24.2.4 Treatment of Depression and Anxiety 24.2.4.1 Culturally Sensitive Treatment: The Professional’s Role 24.2.4.2 Medication and Psychotherapy A Typical Case 24.3 Suicide 24.4 WHO Recommendations on Depression, Anxiety and Suicide 24.5 Conclusion References 25: Somatization and Functional Disorders in Migrants and Refugees 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Current Concepts 25.3 Functional Neurological Disorders (FND) 25.3.1 Phenomenology 25.3.1.1 Functional Weakness (FW) 25.3.1.2 Functional Movement Disorders (FMD) 25.3.1.3 Psychogenic Non-epileptic Seizures (PNES) 25.3.1.4 FND with Sensory Manifestations 25.3.1.5 Other Functional Disorders 25.3.2 Diagnosis of FD 25.4 Somatization and FND in Migrants 25.4.1 Frequency of Somatization in Migrants 25.4.2 Risk Factors for Somatization in Migrants 25.4.2.1 Role of Immigration 25.4.2.2 Socio-demographic Factors 25.4.2.3 Cultural Factors 25.4.3 Phenomenological Differences in Somatization and FND Among Migrants 25.5 Management of Somatization and FD 25.6 Conclusion References 26: Palliative Care in Migrants 26.1 Introduction 26.2 What Is Palliative Care? 26.2.1 The Overarching Concept of PC Is the WHO Definition (WHO) 26.3 The Concept of Disease and Death 26.3.1 Death and Dying 26.4 Age Group of Migrants and Their Families 26.5 Expectation of Migrants 26.6 Palliative Care in Neurological Diseases 26.6.1 Selected Examples of Neurological Diseases 26.6.1.1 Stroke 26.6.1.2 Neuro-oncology 26.6.1.3 Degenerative Diseases 26.6.1.4 Dementia 26.6.2 Motor Neuron Disease: Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (MND/ALS) 26.6.3 Neuromuscular Diseases (NM) 26.6.3.1 Trauma 26.6.3.2 Minimal Conscious and Vegetative State and Brain Death 26.6.4 Mental Disease/Psychiatry (Trachsel et al. 2019) 26.7 Access to Palliative Care 26.7.1 Unequal Opportunities for Migrants to Access PC (Table 26.1) 26.8 Is Our View on the Problems Accurate? 26.9 Conclusion and Outlook References Part IV: Future Developments 27: Migrants’ Health, the Sustainable Development Goals, and the COVID-19 Pandemic 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Migrants’ Health 27.3 Achieving Migrant Health Through the Implementation to the SDGs 27.3.1 SDG 1 (No Poverty) 27.3.2 SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-Being) 27.3.3 SDG 5 (Gender Equality) 27.3.4 SDG 8 “Decent Work and Economic Growth” 27.3.5 SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) 27.3.6 SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) 27.3.7 SDG 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions) 27.3.8 SDG 17 (Paternership for the Goals) 27.4 COVID-19 Impact on the Sustainable Development Goals and in Migrants’ Health 27.5 Conclusion References