Cycling

Description

This volume addresses key contemporary aspects in cycling policy, practice and research. Cycling has seen a sharp increase in scientific and policy attention in the past decade. The amount of research has surged over the past couple decades. Also, levels of cycling have increased substantially in many countries and cities, and many areas have seen increases in infrastructure investments. In addition, the last decade has seen innovations in bicycle technology, in particularly the rise of electric-assist (e-bikes) and dock-less bike sharing schemes. This volume reviews the state of the art on cycling from various angles. As such it explores planners' (engineers', policy makers') provisions for cycling, of cyclists' (and non-cyclists') travel behaviour, and resulting consequences for individuals and society. One focus is on demand-side aspects, including the use of bicycles and their users including patterns and trends in cycling, determinants of cycling, and modelling of cycling. Another focus is on impacts of cycling, such as emissions, safety aspects, as well as changes during the COVID pandemic. Front Cover Cycling Copyright Contents Contributors Chapter One: Cycling: Past, current and future Chapter Two: The bicycle: Technology and culture 1. Introduction 2. Defining the bicycle 3. The single-track design 4. The self-moving principle and its consequences 5. Efficiency, speed and range of travel 6. Concluding remarks References Chapter Three: The rise of the electrically assisted bicycle and the individual, social and environmental impacts of use 1. Introduction 2. Definitions and electric bicycle sales 2.1. What is an electric bicycle? 2.2. How have e-bike sales changed over the years? 3. Demographics of e-bike users and reasons for use 3.1. Does e-cycling increase the diversity of individuals riding? 3.2. Are there differences in the purpose of e-bike use based on demographics? 3.3. What motivates people to purchase and use e-bikes and how is e-cycling perceived? 4. The impact of e-cycling on transport mode use, the environment and health 4.1. What is the impact of e-cycling on the frequency and duration of cycling? 4.2. What is the impact of e-cycling on travel behavior? 4.3. What is the environmental impact of e-cycling? 4.4. What is the intensity of activity associated with e-cycling and the impact on physical activity? 4.5. Are there long-term physical health benefits of e-cycling? 4.6. Are there mental health benefits of e-cycling? 4.7. What is the impact of e-bikes on incident risk and severity? 5. E-bike promotion schemes 5.1. How is e-bike use being encouraged? 6. E-bike research, current research gaps and priorities 6.1. How has e-bike related literature changed over the years? 6.2. What are the current research gaps and future priorities? 7. Conclusion References Chapter Four: Street level design for cycling 1. Introduction 2. Creating priority networks with busy streets 2.1. Protected lanes 2.2. Lanes with differential height 2.3. Buffered lanes 2.4. Advisory bike lanes 3. Creating priority networks with residential streets 4. Conclusion Chapter Five: Network level design for cycling 1. Introduction 2. Requirements for cycle networks 2.1. Safety 2.2. Cohesion 2.3. Directness 2.4. Comfort 2.5. Attractiveness 2.6. Adaptability 2.7. Discussion 3. Data for cycle network planning 4. Guidelines for intermodal street network planning 5. Guidelines for cycle network planning 6. Academic approaches for supporting and optimizing cycle network planning 6.1. Multi-criteria assessment approaches 6.2. Optimization-based approaches 6.3. Data-driven network growth strategies 7. Strengths and weaknesses of current methods for designing cycle networks 8. Development of an integrated multi-modal approach for network level planning for cycling 9. Conclusions References Chapter Six: Tools and processes for practitioners 1. Introduction 2. Policy, strategy and program level development 3. Modeling and network planning 3.1. Mode choice 3.2. Route choice 3.3. Accessibility and network planning 4. Design and operational appraisal 4.1. Visualization tools 4.2. Modeling interactions and operation 5. Scheme appraisal 5.1. Health impact appraisal 5.2. Cost-benefit analysis 5.3. Multicriteria analysis 6. Level of service assessment and auditing 6.1. Level of service auditing 6.2. Street and route audits 6.3. Safety auditing 7. Monitoring and evaluation 8. Concluding summary Acknowledgments References Chapter Seven: A global overview of cycling trends 1. Introduction 2. Data sources and methods 3. Cycling levels and trends 4. Characteristics of bicycle trips: Distance, duration, and speed 5. Demographics of cyclists: Gender and age 6. Electric bicycles (E-bikes) 6.1. Definition, growth and mode shift 6.2. Distance and trip purpose 6.3. Gender 7. Conclusions References Chapter Eight: Modeling of cycling behavior 1. Introduction 1.1. Microscopic and macroscopic approaches 1.2. Model validation 2. Bicycle modeling framework 3. Activity-travel modeling 4. Mode and route choice modeling 4.1. Cycling mode choice 4.2. Cycling route choice 5. Bicycle traffic operations modeling 5.1. Microscopic theory and models 5.1.1. Mental layer models 5.1.2. Physical layer models 5.2. Macroscopic theory and models 5.2.1. Derivation of the fundamental diagram from microscopic principles 5.2.2. Continuity equation and the flow-density relation 5.2.3. Queuing models 5.2.4. Continuum models and shockwave theory 6. Simulation models 6.1. Planning models 6.2. Microscopic simulation models 7. Summary and conclusions References Chapter Nine: Cyclists interactions with other road users from a safety perspective 1. Introduction 2. Interactions on road segments 2.1. Pedestrians 2.2. Busses 2.3. Motorists 2.4. Other cyclists 3. Interactions at intersections 3.1. Gap acceptance 3.2. Heavy-duty vehicles 4. Shared space 5. Discussion 6. Conclusion References Chapter Ten: Cycling and socioeconomic (dis)advantage 1. Introduction 2. Socioeconomic inequalities in cycling levels 2.1. Income 2.2. Education 2.3. Occupation 3. Spatial inequalities in the provision of cycling facilities 3.1. Cycling networks 3.2. Bike share schemes 4. Research gaps and priorities for further research 5. Conclusions References Chapter Eleven: Cycling, climate change and air pollution 1. Introduction 2. Travel emissions: how do ``cycling´´ and ``cyclists´´ compare? 2.1. Determinants and distribution of emissions 2.2. Life cycle emissions of private and shared bikes 2.3. Private or shared: which is lower carbon over the life cycle? 2.3.1. Vehicle production and end-of life treatment 2.3.2. Transportation and delivery to point of purchase 2.3.3. Emissions from energy/fuel supply to the vehicle 2.3.4. Emissions from energy/fuel supply to the user 2.3.5. Operational impact of shared systems: rebalancing, collection and redistribution 2.4. Summary: cycling and e-biking are the lowest carbon emitters on a life cycle basis 3. Mode shift: what are potential and observed emission reductions from shifting to cycling? 3.1. Which trips and trip purposes are amenable to mode shift? 3.2. Potential effects: ``what if´´ scenario and potential impacts studies 3.2.1. Global scale 3.2.2. European scale 3.2.3. National scale 3.2.4. Regional and city scale 3.2.5. Individual scale 3.3. Observed effects: cross-sectional and longitudinal studies 3.4. What about mode shift from bike sharing systems? 3.5. Local air pollution effects 4. Implications for policy and planning 4.1. Realizing the significant potential for mode shift 4.2. Minimize the impacts of shared systems and make it easier to own and use a private vehicle 4.3. Expand the scope to rural and sub-urban settings 5. Summary conclusion References Chapter Twelve: Cycling during and after the COVID-19 pandemic 1. Introduction 2. General mobility and cycling trends during the COVID-19 pandemic 2.1. Mobility behavior 2.2. Trip purpose 2.3. Accident numbers and emissions 3. Measures to promote cycling during COVID-19 3.1. Tactical urbanism 3.2. Pop-up bike lanes 3.3. Open streets 3.4. Changes in bike sharing systems 4. Potential long-term changes in mobility behavior 5. Summary and outlook on mobility after COVID-19 References Further reading Back Cover