White Wine Technology

Description

White Wine Technology addresses the challenges surrounding white wine production. The book explores emerging trends in modern enology, including molecular tools for wine quality and analysis of modern approaches to maceration extraction, alternative microorganisms for alcoholic fermentation, and malolactic fermentation. The book focuses on the technology and biotechnology of white wines, providing a quick reference of novel ways to increase and improve overall wine production and innovation. Its reviews of recent studies and technological advancements to improve grape maturity and production and ways to control PH level make this book essential to wine producers, researchers, practitioners, technologists and students. Front Cover White Wine Technology Copyright Page Contents List of contributors Prologue 1 Assessment and control of grape maturity and quality 1.1 White grape quality parameters 1.2 Chemical parameters related to the quality of white wine grapes 1.2.1 Grape technological ripeness: primary metabolites 1.2.2 Nitrogenous compounds 1.2.3 Phenolic compounds 1.2.4 Volatile compounds 1.3 Monitoring grape characteristics through analytical control and sensory and remote assessments 1.3.1 Analytical control of basic metabolites 1.3.2 Analytical control of aromatic potential 1.3.3 Sensory and visual assessment of grape quality 1.3.4 Remote sensing assessment of grape quality and yield References 2 White grape quality monitoring via hyperspectral imaging: from the vineyard to the winery 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Hyperspectral imaging 2.1.2 HSI processing 2.2 Vineyard-level applications 2.2.1 Grapevine variety recognition 2.2.2 Vineyard hydric status 2.2.3 Chlorosis diagnosis 2.2.4 Virus detection 2.3 Grape maturity assessment 2.3.1 Phenolic maturity 2.3.2 Aromatic compounds determination 2.4 Conclusion and future trends Funding Conflicts of interest References 3 Use of glutathione in the winemaking of white grape varieties 3.1 Glutathione: Structure and properties 3.2 Glutathione content in white varieties and evolution through winemaking 3.3 Glutathione application during the production and preservation of white wines 3.4 Effects of glutathione application on white wine quality 3.4.1 Influence on glutathione content 3.4.2 Influence on the nitrogen composition 3.4.3 Influence on aromatic composition 3.4.4 Influence on phenolic composition 3.4.5 Influence on sensorial characteristics Acknowledgments References 4 White must extraction methods 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Traditional production process in high-volume wineries 4.2.1 Destemming and crushing of white grapes 4.2.2 Must extraction by dejuicer and continuous pressing 4.2.2.1 Continuous presses 4.3 Current production process in high-volume wineries 4.3.1 Separation of grape must by decanter centrifuge 4.4 Juice extraction process in high-quality white wines 4.4.1 Pneumatic presses 4.5 Conclusion References 5 White must preservation by ultra-high pressure homogenization without SO2 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Origin and basis of UHPH technology 5.3 Overview of UHPH employment in different food matrices treated by UHPH 5.4 Must sterilization 5.5 Oxidation control 5.6 Improvement in the implantation of non-Saccharomyces yeasts 5.7 Deseasonalization of wine production 5.8 Sensory impact of the use of UHPH 5.9 Conclusion and future prospects References 6 Use of pulsed electric fields in white grape processing 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Principles of PEF processing 6.2.1 The electroporation phenomenon 6.2.2 Generation of PEF and PEF treatment system 6.3 PEF applications in white winemaking 6.3.1 Improving juice extraction yield from white grapes by PEF 6.3.2 Improving the extraction of aroma precursor compounds from white grapes by PEF 6.3.3 Microbial inactivation by PEF in white winemaking 6.3.4 Application of PEF for acceleration of yeast autolysis and aging on lees 6.4 Conclusion References 7 Ultrasound to process white grapes 7.1 What is ultrasound? Definition and basic parameters 7.2 Basic parameters of US 7.2.1 Frequency 7.2.2 Ultrasonic energy 7.2.3 Amplitude 7.2.4 Exposure/contact time 7.2.5 Treatment conditions 7.3 Ultrasound devices for processing grapes and wines 7.4 Possible uses of US in white wine technology 7.4.1 Microbiological control and SO2 reduction 7.4.2 Enzymatic control 7.4.3 Extraction of aroma compounds during grape processing 7.4.4 Extraction of oak compounds into wine 7.4.5 Ultrasound and aging on lees 7.5 Final remarks References 8 Settling. Clarification of musts 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Technological and qualitative impact 8.3 Characteristics of suspended solids in musts 8.3.1 Contents 8.3.2 Size distribution, aggregation 8.3.3 Composition 8.4 Must cleaning—clarification techniques 8.4.1 Settling 8.4.2 Centrifugation 8.4.3 Flotation 8.4.4 Clarification of lees and flotation foams 8.5 Conclusion References 9 Application of Hanseniaspora vineae to improve white wine quality 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Hanseniaspora in grapes and wine 9.2 Characterization of species and strain diversity 9.2.1 Strain diversity within Hanseniaspora: Fermentation capacity 9.2.2 Strain diversity within Hanseniaspora: Aroma compounds 9.3 Mixed cultures with Saccharomyces cerevisiae 9.3.1 Nutrient management during vinification 9.4 Flavor impact of Hanseniaspora vineae in white wines 9.4.1 Aroma complexity and nitrogen metabolism 9.4.2 Impact on taste and palate 9.4.2.1 Glycerol 9.4.2.2 Polysaccharides, mannoproteins, and cell autolysis 9.4.2.3 Protease activity 9.5 Conclusions Acknowledgments References 10 Improving white wine aroma and structure by non-Saccharomyces yeasts 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Non-Saccharomyces mixed fermentation 10.3 Yeast interaction in mixed fermentation for white wine production 10.4 Biocontrol activity of non-Saccharomyces 10.5 NS aroma and structure of white wine 10.5.1 Torulaspora sp 10.5.2 Lachancea sp 10.5.3 Metschnikowia sp 10.5.4 Pichia sp 10.5.5 Starmerella spp 10.5.6 Zygosaccharomyces spp 10.5.7 Hanseniaspora spp 10.5.8 Schizosaccharomyces spp 10.6 Conclusions References 11 Biological acidification by Lachancea thermotolerans 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Microbiological and molecular identification 11.2.1 Selective and differential media 11.2.2 Molecular techniques 11.3 Commercially available strains of Lachancea thermotolerans 11.4 Lactic acid production and pH control during fermentation 11.4.1 pH control 11.4.2 Reduction of ethanol content 11.4.3 Lachancea thermotolerans and malolactic fermentation 11.4.4 Alternative fermentation biotechnologies with Lachancea thermotolerans 11.5 Nutritional requirements 11.6 Effect of pH on SO2 levels and wine stability 11.7 Impact on wine sensory profile 11.7.1 Acidity and freshness 11.7.2 Aroma 11.7.3 Color 11.8 Biocontrol by Lachancea thermotolerans 11.9 Special wines 11.9.1 Sweet wines 11.9.2 Sparkling wines 11.10 Conclusions References 12 Nitrogen management during fermentation 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Nitrogen metabolism in yeasts 12.2.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 12.2.1.1 Assimilation of nitrogen sources 12.2.1.2 Role of nitrogen in volatile compound metabolism 12.2.2 Non-Saccharomyces yeasts 12.3 Assimilable nitrogen in musts 12.3.1 YAN measurement 12.3.2 YAN concentrations in musts 12.3.3 Effect of YAN on the kinetics of fermentation 12.3.4 Nitrogen is not always limiting 12.4 Nitrogen management 12.4.1 Control of fermentation kinetics 12.4.1.1 Case of “slow fermentations” 12.4.1.2 Case of sluggish and stuck fermentations 12.4.1.3 Case of very clarified musts 12.4.2 Impact on production of fermentative aromas by Saccharomyces cerevisiae 12.5 Prospect References 13 Tasting the terroir of wine yeast innovation 13.1 The past and future of wine is ever present in its tradition of innovation 13.2 Stamping yeast signatures onto the terroir and vintage labels of wine 13.2.1 Yeasts from somewhere 13.2.2 Yeasts from everywhere 13.2.3 Yeasts from anywhere 13.2.4 Yeasts from elsewhere 13.2.5 Yeasts from nowhere 13.3 Linking yeast with wine quality and consumer gratification 13.3.1 Flavor-active non-Saccharomyces wine yeasts 13.3.2 Flavor-active Saccharomyces wine yeasts 13.4 Inventing a brighter future for wine with yeast Acknowledgments References 14 Malolactic fermentation in white wines 14.1 Effect of MLF on pH changes 14.2 MLF as a bioprotection agent 14.3 Impact of MLF on wine organoleptic properties 14.4 New findings, new ways to employ MLF, and new applications Acknowledgments References 15 Pinking 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Origin of the pinking phenomena of white wines 15.3 Pinking of Síria white wines 15.4 Methods to predict the pinking susceptibility of white wine 15.5 Preventive and curative treatments for pinking 15.6 Conclusions References 16 Origin, prevention, and mitigation of light-struck taste in white wine 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Origin of the light-struck taste 16.3 Preventive treatments and strategies to avoid light-struck taste in white wines 16.4 Conclusions References 17 White wine polyphenols and health 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Wine and polyphenols 17.3 Bioactive components in white wine 17.3.1 Grape polyphenols 17.3.2 Other bioactive compounds 17.4 Putative positive health effects of white wine and components and mechanisms involved 17.5 Wine, lifestyle, and sociological factors 17.6 Alcohol risks 17.7 Conclusions References 18 Enzyme applications in white wine 18.1 Introduction to wine enzymes 18.1.1 Definition, structure, and action mechanism 18.2 Enzyme origin, production, nomenclature, and regulation 18.2.1 Enzyme origin 18.2.2 Production systems 18.2.3 Nomenclature and regulation 18.3 Enzymes in winemaking 18.3.1 Grape structure and content 18.3.2 Endogenous enzymes in grape and juice 18.3.3 Exogenous enological enzymes used in white winemaking 18.3.3.1 Principal activities 18.3.3.1.1 Pectinases 18.3.3.1.2 Glycosidases 18.3.3.1.3 β-glucanases 18.3.3.1.4 Proteases (under OIV evaluation) 18.3.3.2 Secondary activities 18.3.3.3 Lysozyme 18.4 Enzyme application in white wine 18.4.1 Prefermentative steps 18.4.1.1 Skin contact 18.4.1.2 Juice extraction/pressing 18.4.1.3 Juice clarification: static settling and flotation 18.4.2 Fermentative and postfermentative steps 18.4.2.1 Aging on lees 18.4.2.2 Glycosylated aroma release 18.4.2.3 Wine clarification, stabilization, and filtration 18.5 Conclusions References 19 Near infrared for white wine analysis 19.1 Introduction 19.2 NIR spectroscopy analysis 19.3 Multivariate analysis of chemometrics 19.4 Application of NIR and chemometrics for white wine analysis 19.5 Summary References 20 Aging on lees 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Definition of wine lees 20.3 Main constituents of wine lees and their modifications during aging 20.3.1 Microbiological composition of lees 20.3.2 Chemical composition of lees 20.3.2.1 Polysaccharides 20.3.2.2 Nitrogen compounds 20.3.2.3 Lipids 20.3.2.4 Other components of yeast lees 20.4 Yeast autolysis and autophagy 20.4.1 Autophagy in yeasts 20.4.2 Autolysis of yeast cell 20.5 Technological management of aging on lees 20.5.1 Aging on lees in still wines 20.5.1.1 Aging in wood barrels 20.5.1.2 Aging in stainless steel vats 20.5.2 Aging on lees in sparkling wines 20.5.2.1 Classic method 20.5.2.2 Martinotti–Charmat method 20.5.2.3 Other applications of aging on lees in sparkling wine production 20.6 Impact of AOL on wine aroma and sensory characteristics 20.7 Microbiological aspects connected with aging on lees 20.8 Technologies for accelerating aging on lees 20.8.1 Use of enzymes 20.8.2 Emerging technologies for accelerating aging on lees Acknowledgments References 21 Barrel aging of white wines 21.1 Brief historical introduction 21.2 The main tree species used in cooperage and what they contribute to wine 21.3 The different procedures for making white wines in barrels 21.4 Enological consequences of yeast autolysis 21.5 Lees stirring and its importance 21.6 Organoleptic consequences of the different procedures for making white wines in barrels References 22 Use of different wood species for white wine production: wood composition and impact on wine quality 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Composition of different wood species 22.3 Different wood species used in white wine production 22.3.1 Impact on white wines chemical composition 22.3.2 Impact on white wines sensory profile 22.4 Final remarks References 23 Impacts of phenolics and prefermentation antioxidant additions on wine aroma 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Polyphenol oxidation 23.2.1 Wine oxidation linked to polyphenol content 23.2.2 Oxygen and its activation in wine 23.2.3 Roles of catalytic metals in polyphenol oxidation 23.3 Oxidation effects on aroma compounds 23.4 Influence of wine antioxidants 23.4.1 Sulfur dioxide 23.4.2 Glutathione 23.4.3 Ascorbic acid 23.5 Enzymatic oxidation of musts 23.5.1 Harvesting methods and juice oxidation 23.5.2 Polyphenol oxidase and hyperoxygenation 23.5.3 Changes in C6 aroma compounds postharvest 23.5.4 Varietal thiol formation 23.6 Applications of antioxidants at harvest 23.6.1 Sulfur dioxide 23.6.2 Glutathione and ascorbic acid 23.7 Concluding remarks References 24 A glance into the aroma of white wine 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Source of volatile compounds in white wine 24.2.1 Varietal aroma 24.2.2 C13-norisoprenoids 24.2.3 Methoxypyrazine 24.2.4 Volatile thiols 24.2.5 Volatile compounds produced during fermentation (fermentation aroma) 24.2.6 Volatile compounds produced during aging (aging aroma) 24.3 Factors that influence aroma profile of white wine 24.3.1 Varietal differences 24.3.2 Environmental conditions 24.3.3 Fermentation managements 24.3.4 Glycosidase treatment 24.3.5 Matrix effects 24.4 A fast-growing determination method for key volatile compounds in wines: gas chromatography–olfactometry 24.5 Conclusion References 25 Inertization and bottling 25.1 Hazards to white wines 25.1.1 Hazard of microorganisms 25.1.2 Oxygen 25.1.3 Precipitations in the bottle 25.1.4 Chemical contamination 25.1.5 Physical contamination 25.2 Physical damage of bottles 25.2.1 Fillers 25.2.2 Filling level adjustment 25.2.3 Bursting of bottle during filling 25.2.4 Microbiological problems of fillers 25.2.5 Temperature during filling 25.3 Closing systems 25.3.1 Screw caps 25.3.2 Cork 25.3.3 Leaky closures 25.4 Pasteurization and preservatives 25.4.1 Preservatives 25.4.2 Pasteurization 25.5 Labeling 25.6 Shelf life 25.7 Extortion 25.8 Effectivity of bottling white wine 25.9 Future tasks in wine bottling References 26 White winemaking in cold climates 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Vitis vinifera varieties, clones, and rootstocks for cold climates 26.3 Methoxypyrazines in white wines 26.3.1 Sources and significance of methoxypyrazines 26.3.1.1 Managing methoxypyrazines in cool climate whites 26.4 White winemaking with skin contact 26.5 Protein stability in white wines 26.6 Icewine production and factors impacting the aroma profile 26.7 Conclusion References 27 White winemaking in cold regions with short maturity periods in Northwest China 27.1 Introduction 27.2 White wine market in China 27.3 General climatic and agronomic conditions of cold regions in China 27.4 Buried viticulture 27.5 Grape varieties in the cold regions of China 27.6 Chemical composition of grapes and must 27.6.1 Sugars and organic acids compounds 27.6.2 Phenolic compounds of grapes and wine 27.6.3 Volatile compounds of grapes and wine 27.7 Wine composition as influenced by winemaking technology 27.8 Innovations in winemaking in cold regions Acknowledgment References Further reading 28 Dealcoholization of white wines 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Sensory effect of ethanol 28.2.1 Sensory effect of partial alcohol reduction 28.3 Different approaches for alcohol reduction 28.3.1 Viticultural strategies 28.3.2 Microbiological approaches 28.3.3 Alcohol reduction by physical methods 28.3.3.1 Vacuum distillation 28.3.3.2 Spinning cone column 28.3.3.3 Osmotic distillation 28.3.3.4 Coupling of nanofiltration or reverse osmosis with further treatments References 29 White wine tasting: Understanding taster responses based on flavor neuronal processing 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Neuronal processing of sensory stimuli 29.2.1 The peculiarity of olfaction 29.2.1.1 The comparison with visual images 29.2.1.2 Olfaction as an emotional sense 29.2.2 Descriptive analysis of odors 29.2.3 Descriptive analysis of emotions 29.2.4 Flavor has an integrative sense 29.2.5 The high range of sensory sensitivities 29.2.6 The perceptual features of expertise in odor analysis 29.2.7 The top-down and bottom-up processing of information 29.3 Technical tasting approaches 29.3.1 Multipoint score sheets 29.3.1.1 Technical and popular scoresheets 29.3.2 Scoresheets as style preference indicators 29.3.3 Indications for good tasting practices and challenge organization 29.4 The evaluation of fine wines 29.4.1 Synthetic properties 29.4.2 Preferences and aesthetic assessment 29.4.2.1 The top-down induced bias: the halo and familiarity effects 29.4.2.2 Widening the range of perceived quality 29.5 Understanding wine styles based on emotional tasting responses 29.5.1 The emotional wine tasting sheet 29.5.2 A proposal for wine systematic tasting at the winery level 29.5.2.1 Quality concept 29.5.2.2 Grape growing and wine manipulation 29.5.2.3 Complexity and harmonious persistence 29.5.2.4 Aging potential 29.5.2.5 Sense of place 29.5.2.6 Gastronomic potential 29.5.2.7 The price 29.6 Final considerations References Index Back Cover