The Berbers of Morocco: A History of Resistance

Description

From the Rif War to the rebellion of 1958, the Berbers (Imazighen) have played a central role in the history of Moroccan resistance to colonialism in the twentieth century. This book provides an in-depth overview of Berber resistance to the French campaigns of ‘Pacification’, and the subsequent struggle over Berber identity in the independence era. Deeply steeped in Berber history and culture, the author traces the major and minor engagements between French forces and the Berbers in revealing detail, using previously unavailable sources. Relying on a wealth of oral sources and extensive field work, it provides the most complete history to date of one of the most important Berber communities in North Africa. Cover page Halftitle page Title page Copyright page Series page Dedication Contents Illustrations and Maps Preface Introduction 1 Berber Origins The problem stated Myth and legend Archaeological and historical theories 2 From Carthage to Islam The Berbers and the Pax Romana The riddle of the Kasbahs 3 Dynasts versus Heretics The Berghaouata The Senhaja princedom of Sijilmassa An Atlas heretic stronghold: Qala‘at El-Mehdi Almoravid intervention 4 Triumph of the Atlas Berbers 5 Makers of Mayhem: Beni Hilal and Ma’qil Almohad decline Worms in the Almohad woodwork Almohad debacle Nomad takeover 6 Atlas Saints and Mountain Kings Start of the northwesterly push Seksawa heyday Lalla ‘Aziza and ‘Amr Hintati Saints and robber barons The Sa’adi sultans “Bum Hully,” the would-be mahdi 7 Senhaja Revival The role of Zaouit Ahansal Driving force behind the Senhaja push The zaouia of Dila’ Sharifian contenders: The ‘Alawids 8 Scourge of the Berbers Dila’ destroyed Enter Moulay Ismaïl Attempted Dila’yin revival Ismaïl’s confrontation with the Ayt ‘Atta Showdown in the Fazaz 9 Transition and Recovery The marabout of Tasaft Qayd Ou-Barka and the Ayt Yoummour An English renegade at large in the Atlas 10 Berber Backlash Black goats and white rams Moulay Yazid and the Imhiwash Moulay Yazid and the power vacuum Turmoil on the Atlas marches Struggle for the upper Moulouya Moulay Sliman: A peripatetic sultan The Battle of Lenda (or “Zaïan incident”) 11 Dawn of the Great Qayd Era From village chief to village bully Bringing to book tribes and marabouts The rise of Moha ou Hammou Azayyi Punishing unruly tribes “The sultan of the mountains” Amhaoush and the Aghbala ambush Moulay Hassan’s last campaign 12 The Foreign Threat Morocco in peril Saints and warriors History in dispute 13 The Start of Morocco’s “Thirty Years’ War” Prestige of the hills: 1) Action at Ksiba Prestige of the hills: 2) Battle of El-Herri Prestige of the hills: 3) The Khenifra convoys 14 The Defense of Jbel Fazaz Bekrit beleaguered Ras Tarsha and the Koubbats End of play in Middle Atlas 15 Stemming the Tide in Southeast Morocco Enter the adventurers Checkmate in Tafilalt The Great Rebellion Belqasm’s arbitrary takeover 16 Great Qayd versus Marabout Tribal warfare on the Glaoua marches A blow to Glaoui prestige From Azilal to Waouizaght 17 Between Oum Rbia’ and Moulouya: Failure of the Marabouts In-fighting among the marabouts Zaïan cavalry versus mountain tribesmen Rather death than dishonor Inaccessible Tounfit 18 Bitter Battles Around Jbel Tishshoukt Four warlike tribes Saving Skoura from the French (1917) “Under the high peak of Tishshoukt” Further campaigning in Tache de Taza: 1923 season 19 The Rif War (1921–7)1 Opening skirmishes Spectacular victory of Anoual The Rifian off ensive: The battles for Fez and Taza Turning point of the war? War on two fronts Winter of 1925–6 End of the Rif republic 20 Phoney War on the Atlas Front (1926–9) The politicals at work Native Affairs officers: positive and negative angles A conquest of hearts and minds? Terror on Tishshoukt: Prelude to surrender Sidi Raho’s last stand on Bou Iblan Berber attempts at containing the “oil stain policy’ 21 Reckless Raiders Rule the Roost (1927–34) Ou-Skounti: Charismatic diehard chief wi n-iwaliwn: A fresh Berber victory20 Ou-Skounti in Yahya-land Tafilalt takeover Fierce firefight at Ifegh Raid and counter-raid: The southern sector Raid and counter-raid: The Atlas front 22 The Opening Rounds of the Atlas Endgame: Ayt Ya’qoub to Tazizaout (1929–32) Into the uncharted Berber borderlands Mountain diehards: Ayt Hadiddou and Ayt Sokhman Capua of the borderlands Desperate battle at Ayt Ya’qoub Neutralizing the Oued L‘abid salient In defense of Yahya-land Towards Ayt Hadiddou country 23 Heroic Defense of Tazizaout “A silver bullet my father left me” ‘Hold on steadfastly!” Battle for “Cedar Pinnacle” “The enemy came and dislodged us from our fox-holes” Tazizaout: The morning after 24 Atlas Endgame: The Closing Stages (1933–4) Ayt ‘Atta win immortal fame in Saghro battle Closing moves of the Atlas campaign Baddou battle Last stand on Jbel Kousser 25 Pacification Aftermath Last shots in “Morocco’s Thirty Years’ War” First years of peace The “Berber dahir” 26 Transition to Modernity: Protectorate and Independence Postwar problems The road to independence Descent into oblivion Start of Berber revival 27 From Oblivion to Recognition Founding of IRCAM 28 Conclusion Notes Bibliography Index