Groundwater Economics, Two-Volume Set

Description

Groundwater is a vitally important resource and as its use increases, the available supply is depleted, creating a ripple effect of impacts on both the environment and the economy that need to be disseminated to a larger audience of students and practitioners. This second edition of Groundwater Economics accomplishes just that. This two-volume set is a comprehensive work focused on the economic values of groundwater resources and use, and it reinforces the need for a strong economic rationale in decision-making relating to that use. This new edition includes a new chapter on sustainability as well as updating all chapters with a focus on sustainability. It thoroughly explains the economic value of groundwater for sustainable use and needs, with practical examples, and includes thirteen new and updated case studies on the economics of groundwater data for decision-making. It also addresses both local and regional groundwater economic choices through a series of applications at an international level. This set, written by a sustainability professional with decades of experience in managing groundwater use and protection, is written for other professionals as well as students, who need to understand and evaluate water resources and mange their use from a variety of sustainable approaches. Cover Volume 01 Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents Preface Acknowledgments Author Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Economics of Groundwater Economics Informs Decisions Economic Significance of Groundwater Advantages of and Demand for Groundwater Characteristics of Groundwater Economic Analysis Approach to Groundwater Significant Groundwater Economics Issues Brief Overview of the Text, Volumes 1 and 2 For Further Consideration References Additional References Consulted Addendum to Chapter 1 Economic Concepts Reference References Chapter 2 Groundwater in the Ecosystem Physical Significance of Groundwater The Hydrologic Cycle Natural Factors Affecting Groundwater Resources Precipitation Aquifer Deep Ancient Aquifers Evaporation Permeability and Soil Texture Geologic Matrix (Or Aquifer Media) Subsurface Water Migration Recharge Zones Discharge Zones Productivity or Yield Depth Managed Yield and Sustainability Surface Water and Groundwater Interaction Wetlands Other Factors Affecting Groundwater Supply Groundwater Availability Groundwater Quality Groundwater Flow Local/On-Site Flow Watershed Flow Regional Flow Natural Sensitivity and Vulnerability Regional Sensitivity Local Sensitivity and Vulnerability Human Activity and Ecosystem Vulnerability Biodiversity in Groundwater Ground and Near-Surface Karst First Aquifer Littoral Zones Deep Aquifer Environments Note on Biodegradation Groundwater Occurrence and Human Interaction Wells Springs Wetlands Groundwater–Surface Water Interaction The Water Budget Groundwater and Climate Change Summary: General Observations on Natural Factors Affecting Groundwater in the Ecosystem For Further Consideration References Chapter 3 Groundwater in the Economy Groundwater’s Influence in the Economy Groundwater Availability Economic Effects of Geology Economic Impacts of Groundwater Use Conjunctive Management of Water Sources Land Value Effects Climatic Effects Groundwater Quality Major Economic Groundwater Uses in National and International Contexts International United States Irrigation Drinking Water Industrial Per Capita Use All Groundwater Uses Groundwater Services Sector and Employment Unintended Effects of Groundwater Use in an Economy Ecological and Aesthetic Uses of Groundwater Residual Absorption as a Use of Groundwater Chemical Wastes Pesticides Competition for the Subsurface Environment Health and Economic Productivity Other Socioeconomic Factors in Overview Economic Management Characteristics of Groundwater Economic Challenges and Market Failure A Model of Groundwater in the Economy Groundwater Function and Service Recycling and Reuse A Simple Model Expanded Ecosystems Services Model Economic Effects on Groundwater from Climate Change Drought and Pumping Saltwater Intrusion Flood Effects Carbon Sequestration Natural Capital Considerations Implications for Sustainable Groundwater in the Economy Summary For Further Consideration References Chapter 4 Groundwater Law A Complex Framework Socioeconomic Considerations Range of Uses Recognized in Law Groundwater Quantity and Quality Groundwater Mobility Groundwater Rights in Use and Access Groundwater Laws of the United States State Groundwater Doctrines, Law and Policy in the United States Terminology for Groundwater Categories in Case Law Subflow of Surface Streams Underground Streams Percolating Waters Wastewaters Water Quantity – State Law Absolute Ownership Reasonable Use Correlative Rights – Eastern United States (From the Restatement of Torts Rule) Correlative Rights – Western United States Prior Appropriation Management Area State Groundwater Drainage Law State Laws for Well Installation U.S. Federal Groundwater Quantity–Related Laws Protecting Quality for Future Quantity Less Quality Protection Reducing Future Supply Potential Supply-Related Tax Subsidy for Irrigation Laws Affecting Groundwater Recharge Water Conservation in Irrigation Water Supply Equipment Other Quantity-Related Federal Laws Water Quality State Law Affecting Land Management Practices with Groundwater Quality Implications State Groundwater Quality Protection U.S. Federal Groundwater Quality Protection–Related Laws Groundwater Quality Standards U.S. Federal Wetlands Laws U.S. Federal Environmental Valuation of Groundwater-Related Actions Drinking Water Standards Underground Injection Control Wellhead Protection Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act Unfunded Mandates Act Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act U.S. Groundwater Financing Laws Other Economic Implications of U.S. Groundwater Rights and Laws Groundwater Case Law State Case Law Federal Case Law Environmental Site Assessments In the United States Internationally Groundwater Laws of Other Countries Canada Mexico European Union Muslim Countries Comparison of Approaches Conclusion For Further Consideration Note References Chapter 5 Microeconomics and Groundwater Markets Evaluating Essential Scarce Resources Economic Utility, Product and Price Demand Utility Function Demand and Willingness to Pay Benefits Supply Production Function Costs of Production An Example in Graphical Form Monopolies and Supply Price in a Competitive Market Economic Efficiency Assumptions Used to Derive “Competitive Markets” Substitutability of Inputs Decision Makers in Groundwater Production and Supply Decision Makers Affecting Demand for and Use of Groundwater An Example Other Factors in Marginal Costs of Groundwater Production Groundwater Markets Markets for Groundwater Supply Valuing a Groundwater Use Right Markets for Groundwater Quality Trading Capital and Financing Aspects of Economic Production Capital Financing Discount Rate Depreciation of Capital Natural Capital National and International Implications of Groundwater Production Summary For Further Consideration Note References Chapter 6 Groundwater Access and Supply: Wells, Aquifer Recharge and Natural Infrastructure Access is Fundamental to Use A Typical Well Groundwater Resource Investigation Elements of an Investigation Analysis of Available Information Cost of Investigation Costs and Benefits of Groundwater Investigation Land or Property Entry Factors Affecting Well Location Well Permits Well Installation Standards Well Installer Certification Well Permit Well Drilling and Installation Well Size High Capacity Wells Monitoring Wells and Piezometers Private Domestic Wells Capital Cost and Related Factors Operation and Maintenance Monitoring Wells Large Water Supply Well Municipal Wells Agricultural Irrigation Wells Injection Wells and Hydraulic Fracturing Injection Wells Hydraulic Fracturing Injection Wells Well Pumps Types and Operation Solar-Powered Pumps Wind-Powered Pumps Other Well Types Dug Wells Bamboo Tube Wells Geothermal Heat Pump Wells Brine Production Wells Dewatering Wells Deep Geothermal Energy Wells In Situ and on-Site Groundwater Treatment Wells Springs Groundwater Protection Aquifer Recharge Natural Groundwater Recharge Managed Aquifer Recharge Aquifer Storage and Recovery Aquifer Storage, Transfer and Recovery General Types of Recharge Recharge Area Quality of Recharge Sources Hydrogeological Factors Managed Aquifer Recharge Technology Infiltration Methods Direct Injection Method Filtration Methods Large Area Source Water Quality Protection Methods Implementation Steps in MAR Project Siting Benefits of Managed Aquifer Recharge Direct Benefits Indirect Benefits Cost-Effectiveness Treatment at MAR Sites Maintenance of Aquifer Recharge Basins Unanticipated Costs of Aquifer Recharge Natural and Green Infrastructure Natural Infrastructure Valued Functions Benefits of Functions Green Infrastructure Benefits for Green Infrastructure Costs of Green Infrastructure Benefits of Properly Installed and Maintained Wells Costs of Improperly Installed or Maintained Wells Ecological Aspects of Access to Groundwater and the Subsurface Unsaturated Zone and Shallow Aquifers Rivers and Streams Wetlands Summary For Further Consideration References Other References Consulted Chapter 7 Groundwater Quality Treatment and Waste Disposal Many Potential Contaminant Sources Subsurface Contaminant Sink and Natural Capital Treatment Treatment for Drinking Water Natural Capital Treatment Service Household Treatment Central Water Supply Treatment Definitions Desalination Subsurface Disposal and Release of Drinking Water Treatment Residuals Watershed Management Waste Releases to Groundwater and the Subsurface Environment Onsite Wastewater Disposal Underground Injection Subsurface Releases and Modifications Associated with Global Climate Change Carbon Dioxide Sea-Level Rise and Saltwater Intrusion Inland Brackish and Saline Water Intrusion Desalination Wastes Remediation of Chemical Residuals in Groundwater Remediated Sites and Redevelopment Water Reclamation and Reuse Economic Considerations for Groundwater in Treatment and Disposal Summary For Further Consideration Note References Chapter 8 Groundwater Consumption for Health and Food Part 1: Groundwater and Health Positive Health Effects of Natural Groundwater Constituents Negative Health Effects of Natural and Anthropogenic Substances Naturally Occurring Contaminants Human-Caused or Anthropogenic Source Contaminants Valuing Health Risks Barriers Protecting Health Wellhead Protection Protective Aspects of the Subsurface Unprotective Aspects of the Subsurface Treatment of Groundwater Groundwater Source Quality for Other Living Organisms Groundwater Source Quality for Commercial Applications Groundwater Production Function and Historical Use Production Function Municipal Supply Domestic Household Supply Historical Use and Productivity Change Summary For Further Consideration References Part 2: Groundwater and Food Production Largest Use of Groundwater Extent of Irrigation Water Demand Biofuels Demand on Groundwater Brief History of Groundwater Irrigation Recent Developments in Irrigation Wells Irrigation Wells in Use Land Area Irrigated Irrigation Well Costs Irrigation Methods and Costs Irrigation Efficiency Irrigation Use of Groundwater Irrigation Productivity Financing Irrigation Systems Ecosystem Effects of Irrigation Waterlogging and Salination Depletion of Aquifers Land Subsidence Accumulation of Salts, Nutrients and Pesticides Residuals Best Management Practices Institutional Factors Groundwater Conservation and Food Production Groundwater Production Function and Productivity for Irrigation Water Macroeconomic Considerations Summary For Further Consideration References Chapter 9 Mineral Extraction, Geothermal Exchange and Manufacturing Groundwater in Industrial Economic Applications Mineral Extraction (Other than Oil and Gas) Description Costs in Production Groundwater Source Use Environmental Factors Benefits Geothermal Exchange Geothermal Heat Pumps Description Cost Groundwater Source Use Benefits Direct Use Deep Geothermal Sources Description Cost Groundwater Source Use Environmental Factors Benefits Manufacturing Description Cost Groundwater Source Use Environmental Factors Benefits Summary For Further Consideration References Chapter 10 Competing Uses and Value of Groundwater and the Subsurface Environment Key Groundwater Conditions Indicators of Competition for Groundwater and the Subsurface Environment in the United States Supply and Production Transmission Storage Waste Sink Emission Source Use Value in Summary Sequel For Further Consideration References Chapter 11 Sustainable Development Concepts Alternatives for Future Groundwater Use Defining Sustainable Development Defining Economic Growth An Alternative Approach to Measuring National Production Cautions on Cost–Benefit Evaluations Natural Capital Shortage Principles of Sustainable Development Principles Applying to All Waters Specific Sustainability Principles for Groundwater Range of Alternative Approaches Targeting Sustainable Groundwater Policies Comprehensive Integrated Water Resource Management Set Clear Aquifer Management Objectives Source Water Protection Restrictions on Chemical Use in Vulnerable Recharge Areas Monitoring Groundwater Status Use of Low-Impact Development Widespread Use of and Incentives for Efficient Water-Using Technology Water Recycling in Manufacturing Water Reuse for Public Supplies Full Cost Pricing New National Accounting Managed Yield and Sustainable Development Maintain Capital, Maximize Service, Minimize Throughput Who Benefits and Who Pays the Cost of the Different Policy Approaches – and How Much? Summary For Further Consideration Note References Chapter 12 Sustainable Groundwater Resources Management Sustainable Management Adaptive Resource Management Adaptive Management for Sustainable Groundwater Resources Collaboration Shared Objectives and Plans Alternatives Assessment Accounting for Hydrologic Processes Minimizing Carbon Footprint Protecting and Remediating Source Water Resource Status Measurement Avoiding Disruption of Extreme Events Reassessment Summary For Further Consideration References Index Volume 02 Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents Preface Acknowledgments Author Chapter 1: Introduction to Groundwater Economic Analysis Project Economic Analysis Clear Definition of Purpose The Whole and the Parts Conducting the Economic Analysis Organization of the Text References Chapter 2: Cost, Benefit, Price and Value of Groundwater in Market and Nonmarket Settings A Framework for Categorizing Economic Results Market Goods and Services Market Failure Nonmarket Goods and Services Costs Public Bads Benefits Price A Generalized Pricing Model Nonmarket Factors Asset Value Replacement Surcharge Pricing Estimating o[F(t)], the Cost of Foregone Opportunities for Water Use Price Elasticity of Demand for Water and Income Factors Scarcity and Pricing Underpricing Pricing Methods Institutions Facilitating Pricing Average versus Marginal Cost Pricing Full Cost Pricing Market Pricing Regulated Monopolistic Market Pricing Values Other Categories of Effects Risk Reduction Benefits Equity Effects Summary For Further Consideration References Chapter 3: Groundwater Policy and Projects Groundwater Policy Types Water Source Policy Policies in High-Level Overview Local Level State Government National/Federal Government Economic Considerations in Water Source Policies Contaminant Control Policy Policies in High-Level Overview Local Level State Government National/Federal Government Economic Considerations in Contamination Control Policy Criteria for Policy AND PROJECT Evaluation Ecosystem Scale Positive Ecosystem Response Equity Economic Efficiency or Effectiveness Dynamic Incentive Low Information Requirements Low Administration Cost Agreement with Moral Precepts Summary For Further Consideration References Chapter 4: Economic Analysis of Groundwater Policy and Projects Policy Evaluation Note on Relation of Volume 2, Chapters 4 and 5 Addressing Economic Evaluation Local Relational Policies Ecosystem Scale Water Use Rights and Liability Law for Water Sources Water Use Rights and Liability Law for Contaminant Control Community Information for Water Sources Community Information for Contaminant Control Positive Ecosystem Response Water Use Rights and Liability Law for Water Sources Water Use Rights and Liability Law for Contaminant Control Community Information for Water Sources Community Information for Contaminant Control Equity Water Use Rights and Liability Law for Water Sources and Contaminant Control Community Information for Water Sources and Contaminant Control Economic Efficiency or Effectiveness Water Use Rights and Liability Law for Water Sources Water Use Rights and Liability Law for Contaminant Control Community Information for Water Source Community Information for Contaminant Control Remaining Criteria for Evaluating Local Relational Policies Dynamic Incentive Water Use Rights and Liability Law for Water Source and Contaminant Control Community Information for Water Source and Contaminant Control Low Information Requirements Water Use Rights and Liability Law for Water Source and Contaminant Control Community Information for Water Source and Contaminant Control Low Administrative Requirements Water Use Rights and Liability Law for Water Source and Contaminant Control Community Information for Water Sources and Contaminant Control Agreement with Moral Precepts Water Use Rights and Liability Law for Water Source and Contaminant Control Community Information for Water Sources and Contaminant Control Risk Management for Water Source and Contaminant Control Ecosystem Scale Positive Ecosystem Response Equity Economic Efficiency or Effectiveness Dynamic Incentive Low Information Requirements Low Administration Cost Agreement with Moral Precepts Economic Instruments for Water Sources and Contaminant Control Ecosystem Scale Positive Ecosystem Response Equity Economic Efficiency and Effectiveness Water Source User Charges and Taxes Water Source—Tradable (or Transferable) Water Use Rights Contaminant Control Policy Relying on User Charges, Taxes and Penalties Contaminant Control Policy Relying on Subsidies Contaminant Control Policy Relying on Product Charges Contaminant Control Policy Relying on Tradable (or Transferable) Release Permits Markets for Formerly Free Services Remaining Criteria for Evaluating Economic Instruments Dynamic Incentive Low Information Requirements Low Administration Cost Agreement with Moral Precepts Environmental Performance Standards Ecosystem Scale Positive Ecosystem Response Equity Economic Efficiency and Effectiveness Water Source Quantity Limits Contaminant Concentration Limits in Ambient Environment, Releases/Emissions and Content Ambient Standards Release or Emission Standards Content Standards Technology Standards Best Practice Standard Remaining Criteria for Evaluating Environmental Performance Standards Dynamic Incentive Low Information Requirements Low Administration Cost Agreement with Moral Precepts Another Perspective: Competition for Versus Management of the Resource For Further Consideration Notes References Chapter 5: Life-Cycle Cost-Benefit Analysis Background on Cost–Benefit and Life-Cycle Cost Analysis Cost–Benefit Analysis Life-Cycle Assessment and Cost Analysis Life-Cycle Assessments Life-Cycle Cost Analysis Integration of Cost – Benefit and Life-Cycle Cost Analysis for Project Sustainability Types of Actions Affecting Groundwater Questions of Options and Scope Guiding Principles Evaluation Approaches Impact Analysis Life-Cycle Costing Overview LCC Procedural Approach Cost-Effectiveness Evaluation Benefits Assessment Benefits by Type of Action Benefits of Actions Affecting Groundwater Benefit Estimation Methods Further Note on Regional Benefits Estimation Life-Cycle Benefit Estimates Benefits Transfer Life-Cycle Cost–Benefit Analysis Net Benefits Calculation Quantifiable Nonmonetizable and Nonquantifiable Costs and Benefits Costs and Benefits Considering Groundwater in a Hydrologic Cycle Context Distribution Effects and Equity Effects on Communities and Government Entities Effects on Businesses Environmental Management Effects Efficiency Recharacterized – Alternative Accounting Comprehensive Efficiency Identity Alternative Evaluation Frameworks Cost and Benefit Estimate Issues Inflation Discounting and the Time Value of Money Intergenerational Considerations Lag Time between Costs and Benefits Regional Variability Regional Multiplier Effects Risk and Uncertainty Risk Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis Double Counting Operationalizing Inherent Value Information Completeness and Groundwater Modeling Review of Key Groundwater Factors Affecting LCCBA Summary For Further Consideration Notes References Chapter 6: Transboundary, International and Climate Change Considerations Global Groundwater Use International Aquifers – A Shared Resource Transboundary Issues Costs and Benefits Related to Transboundary and International Groundwaters Evolution of International Water Law International Frameworks for Transboundary Groundwaters Economics of Local Transboundary Aquifer Use Effects of Climate Change on Groundwater Potential Effects Identified Effects of Underground Storage of Carbon Dioxide Effects of Increased Precipitation Variability Economic Effects Transboundary and International Factors Aquifer Storage as a Climate Change Adaptation Institutional Factors for Water Cooperation Summary For Further Consideration References Chapter 7: Macroeconomic Perspective Macroeconomic Policy Activity Macroeconomics in Overview National Macroeconomic Functions Macroeconomic Policy Development Effects of Macroeconomic Policies Ecological Capacity in the Macroeconomy Macroeconomic Models of the Economy Groundwater Occurrence and Use Basic Raw Material for Many Industries Natural Capital Natural Capital and Depletion Macroeconomic Balancing and Policies Macroeconomic Policy Goals and Principles Goals Principles Macroeconomic Instruments Distribution Effects Macroeconomic Models in Prospect Summary For Further Consideration Note References Chapter 8: Groundwater in the Future Balance Public Goods are Undersupplied in the Marketplace A Public Common Property Resource Polluter Pays Principle Resource Value Promoted by Government Action More Resource Information for Setting Public Resource Objectives Monitoring Is Essential Physical/Hydrogeologic Relationships Global Climate Change Marginal Brackish Waters and Brines Becoming Essential Modeling to Support Management Objectives Maintain Natural Capital for Sustainability Importance of Scale and Public Objectives Resource Accounting Replenishment of Mined Aquifers Pollution Prevention, Residual/Waste Reduction and Counter to Cautionary Tax Water Conservation and “Green” Management Trade Information Aids Communities in Valuing Groundwater Aquifers and Watersheds – Appropriate Management Units Aquifer and Watershed Planning Aquifer-Watershed “Footprint” and Sustainable Yield Accounting Area of Interest Economic Evaluation Distribution of the Resource to all Who Rely on it Intragenerational Equity and Distribution Sustenance during Drought Intergenerational Considerations Efficient Allocation of the Resource Efficient Resource Allocation Follows Natural Capital Decisions Alternative Water Sources and Treatments Overall Resource Protection and Allocation through Pricing Mechanisms and Tax Policy Full Cost Pricing Economic Effects beyond Points of Use Property Transfer Site Assessments Level Playing Field Residuals Management Residuals Trading Benefits Analyses Measure Efficiency Differently Ecosystem Significance in Community Values Balancing Ecosystem and Community Values Multiple Pathways to Valuing Groundwater Value through Action in the Community Groundwater Economics Research Needs For Further Consideration Notes References Chapter 9: Case Studies in Groundwater Economics Case Study 1: Production Well Costs and Benefits Wells in Spain Wells in Honduras Combined 300 and 200 mm Wells Capital and Energy Cost Single larger 350 mm Well Capital and Energy Cost References Case Study 2: Life-Cycle Costing and Water Well Investment Strategy Key Analytical Results Initial Capital Costs Unit and Capital Costs of Well Installation Operation and Maintenance Costs Annual Operation and Maintenance Costs Well Casing Scale Management Energy Cost Specific Capacity of Wells Well Construction Costs for Three Representative Wells Life-Cycle Costing Analysis General Assumptions Well-Specific Assumptions Analysis of Life Cycle Costing Operation and Maintenance Costs Well Cleaning Costs Pump and Motor Replacement Costs Energy Use Costs Conclusions Discussion Case Study 3: Costs and Benefits of Well Owner Disinfection Decisions Introduction Uncertainty and Risk Associated with Microbial Contamination of Groundwater and Wells Evaluation of Avoided Cost Benefits Cost of Treatment for a Private Domestic Water Well Cost–Benefit Analysis of Disinfecting Wells Testing Positive for Pathogens Avoided-Cost Benefits per Individual Well Owner for Taking Health Protective Action Conclusion Discussion References Case Study 4: Economics of Groundwater Depletion Background Zarqa Basin Economic Analysis Results Discussion References Case Study 5: High Plains Irrigation Water Value Background Methods of Estimating Irrigation Water Value High Plains Irrigation Water Value Results Discussion References Case Study 6: Groundwater Contaminant Remediation Economics Background Initial Groundwater Monitoring Results and Public Health Concerns Alternative Emergency and Remedial Actions Alternative 1 – Hookups to the Rockford Public Water Supply Alternative 2 – New Residential Water Wells Alternative 3 – Point of Entry Water Treatment Devices Alternative 4 – No Action Economic Analysis Safe Water Supply Long-Term Remedial Action Soil Groundwater/Leachate Current Site Status ( USEPA, 2020b) References Case Study 7: Wellhead Protection: Benefits and Costs Background Case Study: Middletown, Ohio (All Monetary Units are in 1994 U.S. Dollars) 1 Contamination Response Wellhead Protection Discussion References Case Study 8: Economic Assessment of a National Regulation – Waste Disposal Wells Introduction Cost Assumptions and Estimates Cost Estimates National Cost of the Regulation Discussion References Case Study 9: Contingent Valuation of Municipal Water Supply Background Other Information about the Survey Discussion Reference Case Study 10: Determining Water Rates Water Rate Example: Fontana, California 3 Revenue Recovery Issues Discussion References Case Study 11: Groundwater Valuation in Rural Settings Benefits of Protecting Groundwater in Four Geographic Regions 4 Hedonic Pricing: Market Value of Groundwater Based on Crop Value 5 Contingent Valuation of Option Price and Value for Groundwater in Cape Cod 6 References Case Study 12: Local Groundwater Source Compared to Regional Waterline General Comparison of Reliability and Quality Case Studies of Cost Detailed Evaluation of Cost Comparison Holly Ridge Development Groundwater Needs Capital Costs Continuing Annual Operation & Maintenance Costs Life-Cycle Capital Costs over 30-Year Planning Horizon Life-Cycle Comparison of Existing GW System Rehabilitation and Alternative Waterline Capital Costs Consumer Cost Comparison Additional Considerations Conclusion Discussion References Case Study 13: Wetland Benefits Evaluation 7 Introduction Benefits Evaluation Discussion Reference Case Study 14: Groundwater Sustainability to Balance Urban and Agricultural Needs 8 Background Hydrogeologic Model Analysis Results Discussion Reference Case Study 15: Managed Aquifer Recharge Basin Project Background Project Objective Construction Features Project Cost Comparison to Residential Consumer Water Rates Discussion References Case Study 16: Balancing Ecosystem, Water Use and Pricing for Groundwater Sustainability Background Ecosystem Balance and Conservation A Hypothetical Case: Does Water Conservation Pay? Results Cost–Benefit Comparison (see Table 2.9.25) Evaluation over Time Discussion References Notes For Further Consideration Index