Structural Geology Principles, Concepts, and Problems

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Cover Structural Geology Dedication Brief Contents Contents Preface to the Third Edition Acknowledgments PART 1: Introduction 1: Introduction Plate Tectonics Equilibrium Geologic Cycles Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 2: Fundamental Concepts and Nontectonic Structures Fundamental Concepts Primary Sedimentary Structures Bedding Mud Cracks Ripple Marks Rain Imprints Tracks and Trails Sole Marks, Scour Marks, Flute Casts Dewatering Structures Fossils Reduction Spots Sedimentary Facies Unconformities Primary Igneous Structures Gravity-Related Features Landslides and Submarine Flows ESSAY: Deciphering a Major Structure in the Southern Highlands of Scotland Salt Structures Impact Structures Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 3: Geochronology in Structural Geology Geochronology Radioactivity and Isotope Geochronology Closure Temperature Assumptions Radioisotopic Dating Techniques Cosmogenic Surface Exposure Dating The Vital Role of Geochronology in Structural Geology Stable Isotopes ESSAY: Rock Bodies That Appear to Be the Same in the Field May Not Turn Out to Be When Their Ages Are Determined Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 4: Geophysical Techniques and Earth Structure Seismic Reflection Seismic Refraction Earthquakes and Seismic Waves Earthquake Waves and Whole-Earth Structure Locating Earthquakes Earthquake Magnitude and Intensity Seismic Tomography Focal Mechanisms and “Beach Balls” Potential Field Methods Terrestrial Magnetism Remanent Magnetism Magnetic Reversals Induced Magnetism Applications Using Magnetism Gravity Applications Using Gravity Electrical Methods Borehole Geophysics Natural Gamma-Ray Log ESSAY: Geophysical Data and the Structure of Mountain Chains Electrical Logs Photoelectric Logs Neutron Logs Temperature, Caliper, and Sonic Logs Utility of Conventional Geophysical Logs—Geology from Wiggly Lines Borehole Imaging Logs Suspension Logging Vertical Seismic Profiles Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading PART 2: Mechanics: How Rocks Deform 5: Stress Definitions Stress on a Plane Mohr Circle Derivation Mohr Construction Amontons’ Law and the Coulomb–Mohr Hypothesis Stress Ellipsoid Stress at a Point Measuring Present-Day Stress in the Earth ESSAY: The Earthquake Cycle Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 6: Strain and Strain Measurement Definitions Measures of Strain Strain Ellipse and Ellipsoid Simple, General, and Pure Shear ESSAY: Daubrée and Mead Experiment Progressive Deformation, Strain Symmetry, and Strain Path Mohr Circle for Strain Tensor Operations for Strain Measuring Strain in Rocks Strain Measurement Techniques Linear Markers Initially Elliptical Markers From Two to Three Dimensions The Utility of Strain Analysis Concluding Thoughts ESSAY: Finite Strain from Deformed Pebbles Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 7: Mechanical Behavior of Rock Materials Definitions Elastic (Hookean) Behavior Permanent Deformation—Ductility Viscous Behavior Plastic (Saint-Venant) Behavior Elasticoviscous (Maxwell) Behavior Controlling Factors Behavior of Crustal Rocks Ductile-Brittle Transition ESSAY: Jelly Sandwiches, Crème Brûlée, and the Mechanical Behavior of the Lithosphere Strain Partitioning Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 8: Microstructures and Deformation Mechanisms Lattice Defects and Dislocations Point Defects Line Defects—Dislocations Planar Defects—Stacking Faults Translation (Dislocation) and Twin Gliding Deformation Mechanisms Cataclasis Creep Processes Superplastic Flow Geochemical Processes Mass-Transfer Processes Factors That Influence the Rates of Chemical Reactions Microstructures Inclusion Trails and Deformation Lamellae Unrecovered Strain, Recovery, and Recrystallization Crystallographic Preferred Orientations Laboratory Models of Deformation Processes Final Thoughts ESSAY: Fault Rocks—A Fourth Class of Rocks Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading PART 3: Fractures and Faults 9: Joints and Shear Fractures ESSAY: Fracking Fracture Analysis Significance of Orientation Fracture Formation in the Present-Day Stress Field Fold- and Fault-Related Joints Fracture Mechanics: Griffith Theory Joints and Fracture Mechanics Fracture Surface Morphology Joints in Plutons Nontectonic and Quasitectonic Fractures Sheeting Columnar Joints and Mud Cracks ESSAY: Mesozoic Fracturing of Eastern North American Crust—Product of Extension or Shear? Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 10: Faults and Shear Zones Fault Anatomy Anderson’s Classification Recognizing Faults ESSAY: Seismic Risk Associated with Tectonic Structures Shear Zones Shear-Sense Indicators Composite Foliations Strain in Ductile Shear Zones Brittle Shear Zones ESSAY: Existence and Displacement Sense of Large Faults Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 11: Fault Mechanics Anderson’s Mechanics and Fundamental Assumptions Anderson’s Fault Types Type 1. Thrust Faults Type 2. Strike-Slip Faults Type 3. Normal Faults Role of Fluids Frictional Sliding Mechanisms Movement Mechanisms Fault Surfaces and Frictional Sliding Shear (Frictional) Heating In Fault Zones Reality of Fault Mechanics ESSAY: Artificial Earthquakes Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 12: Thrust Faults Nature of Thrust Faults Detachment Within a Sedimentary Sequence Propagation and Termination of Thrusts Features Produced by Erosion ESSAY: Debate About Thrust Faults Crystalline Thrusts ESSAY: Gravity Model Foldbelt Cross-Section Construction and the Room Problem Thrust Mechanics Mechanics of Crystalline Thrusts Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 13: Strike-Slip Faults Properties and Geometry Tectonic Setting of Strike-Slip Faulting Geometry Related to Other Fault Types Terminations of Strike-Slip Faults Releasing and Restraining Bends Transtension and Transpression Transforms Mechanics of Strike-Slip Faulting ESSAY: Rigid Indenters and Escape Tectonics Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 14: Normal Faults Properties and Geometry Environments and Mechanics Growth Faults Rift Zones Regional Crustal Extension Hyperextension of Continental Crust and Mantle Oceanic Core Complexes Collapse Structures and Related Features Relationship to Strike-Slip Faults Final Thoughts ESSAY: Inverted Faults and Tectonic Inheritance Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading PART 4: Folds and Folding 15: Anatomy of Folds Descriptive Anatomy of Folds Fold Anatomy Kinds of Folds Fold Shape Use of Parasitic Folds in Determining Position in a Fold ESSAY: Gravity–Driven Soft-Sediment Folds and Faults Folds at Map and Cross Section Scale Fold Classifications Ramsay’s Classification Donath and Parker Classification Which Classification to Use? ESSAY: Folds and the Development of the Petroleum Industry Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 16: Fold Mechanics Fold Mechanisms and Accompanying Phenomena Bending Buckling Flexural Slip Parallel and Similar Folds Passive Slip—A Problematical Mechanism Kink Folding Flexural Flow Passive Flow (Passive Amplification) Combined Mechanisms Deformation Mechanisms and Strain Discussion Nucleation and Growth of Folds ESSAY: A Tale of Two Folds: Deciphering the Fold Mechanisms of Two Small Folds Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 17: Complex Folds Occurrence and Recognition Superposed Folds and Fold Interference Patterns Type 0 Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Modifications Recognition of Multiple Fold Phases Noncylindrical and Sheath Folds Formation of Complex Folds Mechanical Implications of Complex Folding ESSAY: The Value of Rosetta Stones Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading PART 5: Fabrics and Structural Analysis 18: Cleavage and Foliations Definitions Cleavage-Bedding Relationships Cleavage Refraction Mechanics of Slaty Cleavage Formation ESSAY: Early Ideas on the Origin of Slaty Cleavage Progressive Cleavage Development in Fine-Grained Sediment Strain and Formation of Slaty Cleavage Crenulation Cleavage Cleavage Fans and Transecting Cleavages Transposition ESSAY: Cleavage Formation and the Identification of Elephants Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 19: Linear Structures Definitions Nonpenetrative Linear Structures Penetrative Linear Structures Boudinage Lineations as Flow and Transport Indicators Folds and Lineations Folded Lineations Interpretation of Linear Structures ESSAY: Pitfalls in Interpreting Linear Structures Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 20: Structural Geology of Plutons The Nature of Magma Distinguishing Magmatic from Solid-State Tectonic Structures The Enigma of Tabular Pluton Emplacement Emplacement of Stocks and Batholiths ESSAY: A Tale of Two Plutons Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading 21: Structural Analysis Cross-Section Analysis Deformation Plan in an Orogen Structural Analysis Procedures Geologic Mapping Mesoscopic Structural Analysis Domain Analysis Microtextural Studies Finite- and Incremental-Strain Studies Fracture Analysis Chronology of Development of Structures Structural Analysis in Foreland Fold-Thrust Belts (Fftbs) Structural Analysis of Multiply Deformed Rocks in the Cores of Orogens ESSAY: Historical Development of Structural Analysis Methods in Metamorphic Rocks Structural Analysis of Multiply Deformed and Transposed Rocks Pitfalls in Using Style and Orientation in Polyphase-Deformed Rocks ESSAY: Structural Analysis at Woodall Shoals Analysis of Salt Structures Structural Analysis in Continental Interiors Structural Analysis in Seismically Active Regions—Insight into Paleoseismology Background Structural Analysis of the Lima Reservoir Fault Chapter Highlights Questions Further Reading PART 6: Appendices Appendix 1: Structural Measurements and Observations Directional Reference Frame and Location Orientation of Planes: Strike and Dip Orientation of Lines: Trend and Plunge; Rake Recording Data Appendix 2: Stereographic Projections and Fabric Diagrams How to Begin Plotting Manually Plotting Planar Structures Plotting Linear Structures Locating Fold Axes Using Equal-Area Plots: β and π Diagrams β Diagrams π Diagrams Contouring Data Appendix 3: Structural Cross Sections—Methods for Cross-Section Construction Introduction Rules of Cross-Section Construction 1. Surface Topography 2. Transferring Geologic Contacts from Map to the Section 3. Transfer of Dip Orientations from the Geologic Map to the Cross Section 4. Maintaining Constant Thickness 5. Thickness of Rock Units Related to Dip Angle 6. Vertical Exaggeration and Scale 7. Section Location and Map Name 8. Explanation of Rock Unit Symbols 9. Use of and Projection of Data from the Section Line 10. Calculation of Dip of All Contacts from Outcrop Patterns Editorial Tips for Constructing Cross Sections Taking Cross Sections to the Next Level—Cross-Section Balancing Introduction Balanced Section Construction Limitations Appendix 4: Woodall Shoals Fabric Data Glossary References Cited Index