Global Arsenic Hazard: Ecotoxicology and Remediation

Description

This book provides a plethora of information about global arsenic (As) contamination and the challenges for environment. Arsenic is a naturally occurring metalloid that is widely distributed in water, soil, air and biota from natural and anthropogenic sources. Arsenic has been found in drinking water in over 100 countries worldwide, which caused a major public health issue including: cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, and cancers of various organs - these are some of the general health effects of As exposure. Exposure of plants to As, even at very low concentrations, can cause many morphological, physiological, and biochemical changes. The recent research on As in the water-soil-plant-human systems indicates that As toxicity to plants varies with As speciation in plants, type of plant species and with other soil factors controlling As accumulation in plants. In recent years, the development of efficient green chemistry methods for detoxification of trace metal poisoning has become a major focus of researchers. It has been investigated in order to find an eco-friendly and recyclable technique for the removal of As contamination from the natural resources. Understanding the significance of As hazard and roles of sustainable or eco-friendly approaches in its mitigation, we intend to bring forth a comprehensive volume “Global Arsenic Hazard - Ecotoxicology and Remediation" highlighting the various prospects involved in current scenario. We are hopeful that this comprehensive volume will furnish the requisite of all those who are working or have interest in the proposed topic. Contents 1 Global Arsenic Hazard and Sustainable Development 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Global Arsenic Problem—Developing and Developed World Concern 1.3 Global Arsenic Research to Seek Solution of the Problem 1.4 Arsenic and Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations 1.5 Important Contents of the Book 1.6 Future Outlooks References 2 Global Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater, Soil and Food Crops and Health Impacts 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Arsenic: An Environmental Contaminant of Global Concern 2.2.1 Groundwater Arsenic Contamination 2.2.2 Sources of Arsenic in Groundwater 2.2.3 Soil Arsenic Contamination 2.2.4 Soil-Plant Transfer of Arsenic: Possible Buildup in Food Chain 2.3 Arsenic Contamination in Pakistan 2.3.1 Hydro-Geography and Climate of Pakistan 2.3.2 Arsenic Groundwater Contamination in Pakistan 2.3.3 Arsenic Soil Contamination in Pakistan 2.3.4 Food-Chain Contamination 2.4 Conclusions References 3 Arsenic Contamination in Rice and the Possible Mitigation Options 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Origin and Forms of Arsenic in Soil and Groundwater 3.3 Arsenic in Soil as Influenced by Different Factors 3.4 Arsenic Uptake Mechanism in Rice Plant 3.5 Mobilization of as Through Root-Shoot-Grain 3.6 Strategies for Mitigating as Accumulation in Rice 3.6.1 Addition of Inorganic Amendments 3.6.2 Organic Amendments and Water Management Practices 3.7 Developing Predictability Models 3.8 Conclusion References 4 Arsenic in Gold Mining Wastes: An Environmental and Human Health Threat in Ghana 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Arsenic Chemistry, Characteristics and Forms in Soils and Sediments 4.1.2 Natural and Anthropogenic Sources of As Contamination 4.1.3 Soil and Biogeochemical Factors Influencing As Contamination and Mobilisation 4.1.4 Toxicity of Arsenic 4.1.5 Remediation of As-Contaminated Sites 4.2 Conclusions and Prospects for Future Research References 5 Arsenic Contamination in Karst Regions 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Arsenic Contamination in Karst Regions 5.2.1 Arsenic Contamination in Soils 5.2.2 Arsenic Contamination in Surface and Underground Water 5.2.3 Arsenic Contamination in Plants 5.3 Environmental Fate of Arsenic in Karst Regions 5.3.1 Arsenic Mobilization in the Environment 5.3.2 Factors Controlling Arsenic Speciation and Mobilization in Karst Regions 5.4 Human Health Risks of Arsenic in Karst Regions References 6 Arsenic Dynamics in Paddy Rice Ecosystems and Human Exposure 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Arsenic as a Global Dilemma in Rice Cultivation 6.3 Arsenic Dynamics Across Paddy Soil–water Interfaces 6.3.1 Effects of Soil pH and Eh 6.3.2 Effects of Redox Sensitive Minerals 6.3.3 Effects of Organic Carbon 6.3.4 Role of Soil Microorganisms 6.4 Arsenic Metabolism in Rice Plants 6.4.1 Uptake Pathways of As(III) 6.4.2 Uptake Pathways of As(V) 6.4.3 Uptake of Methylated As Species 6.4.4 Translocation of As Species from Root to Shoot 6.4.5 Arsenic Loading to Rice Grain 6.5 Grain Arsenic and Human Exposure 6.5.1 Arsenic Toxicity on Rice Quality 6.5.2 Human Exposure to Arsenic by Rice 6.6 Remarks and Future Recommendations References 7 Interaction of Arsenic with Biochar in Water and Soil: Principles, Applications, and Prospects 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Different Technologies Used for Arsenic Removal in Water and Soil Systems 7.3 Biochar 7.3.1 Production of Biochar 7.3.2 Biochar as a Candidate for As Removal 7.4 Application of Biochar for As Remediation in Water 7.4.1 Use of Non-Activated- Biochar for As Removal in Water 7.4.2 Use of Activated Biochar for As Removal 7.5 Application of Biochar for Remediation of As Contaminated Soil 7.5.1 Use of Non-Activated Biochar for As Removal in Soil 7.5.2 Use of Activated Biochar for As Removal in Soil 7.6 Limitations 7.7 Conclusions References 8 Accumulation and Translocation of Arsenic in Rice with Its Distributional Flow During Cooking: A Study in West Bengal, India 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Materials and Methods 8.2.1 Study Area 8.2.2 Sample Collection, Preparation and Preservation 8.2.3 Chemicals and Reagents 8.2.4 Digestion and Estimation of Arsenic 8.2.5 Micronutrient Analysis 8.2.6 Quality Control and Quality Assurance 8.3 Results and Discussion 8.3.1 Accumulation and Translocation of Arsenic in Different Parts of Whole Paddy Grain Located in Single Pedicel (Height Wise) 8.3.2 Arsenic Localization in Single Paddy Grain 8.3.3 Selenium and Zinc Along with Arsenic Distribution in Rice Grain 8.3.4 Interpretation of Arsenic Flow at the Time of Cooked Rice Preparation 8.3.5 Arsenic Species Distribution in Rice Grain 8.4 Mitigation Strategies to Reduce Rice Grain Arsenic and Conclusive Remarks References 9 An Overview of Arsenic Contamination in Water Resources of Pakistan, Risk Assessment and Remediation Strategies 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Extent of Arsenic Contamination in Pakistan 9.3 Health Impacts of Arsenic Toxicity in Pakistan 9.4 Remediation Strategies to Reduce Arsenic Contamination 9.5 Chemical Strategies for Arsenic Remediation 9.5.1 Adsorption 9.5.2 Coagulation-Filtration Techniques 9.5.3 Chemical Precipitation 9.5.4 Ion Exchange 9.5.5 Membrane 9.5.6 Arsenic Removal Through Biological Techniques 9.5.7 Microbial Bioremediation 9.5.8 Phytoremediation: A Sustainable Strategy 9.5.9 Microbial and Plants Assisted As Bioremediation (Phytobial Remediation) 9.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 10 Approaches for Stochastic Modelling of Toxic Ion Adsorption at Crystal-Water Interfaces: A Case Study of Arsenic 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Crystal-Fluid Interface Structure 10.3 Kinetic Monte Carlo Modelling 10.3.1 Mathematical Foundations of the Method 10.3.2 Description of a System Modeled 10.3.3 Adsorption Kinetics 10.3.4 Monte Carlo Algorithms 10.3.5 Adsorption of As(V) on Hematite Nanocrystals 10.4 Statistical Mechanics Approaches References 11 A Comparison of Technologies for Remediation of Arsenic-Bearing Water: The Significance of Constructed Wetlands 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Sources of Arsenic and Its Speciation 11.3 Hazardous Effects of Arsenic on the Human Health 11.4 Challenges in Technologies to Remediate Arsenic-Contaminated Water and Wastewater 11.5 Oxidation Techniques for Arsenic Separation from Water 11.5.1 Oxidation and Filtration 11.5.2 Photo-Chemical Oxidation 11.5.3 Biological Arsenic Oxidation 11.6 Phytoremediation 11.6.1 Adsorption 11.7 Co-precipitation 11.8 Constructed Wetlands Technology for Arsenic-Contaminated Water Treatment 11.8.1 Adsorption Media in Constructed Wetlands 11.8.2 Methylation of Arsenic in Constructed Wetlands 11.9 Conclusions and Future Outlook References 12 Application of Nanotechnology in Mitigating Arsenic Stress and Accumulation in Crops: Where We Are and Where We Are Moving Towards 12.1 Introduction 12.1.1 As Contamination in Soils 12.1.2 Adverse Impact of As Contamination on Plant Productivity 12.1.3 Arsenic Accumulation and Transportation in Plant 12.1.4 Arsenic Exposure in Humans Through Dietary Sources and Health Hazards 12.2 Glimpses of Remediation Techniques Employed So Far 12.2.1 Need for Nanoparticles for Managing As Contamination in Soil 12.2.2 Nano-Materials in Soil–Water-Plant Interfaces 12.3 NPs in As Stress Mitigation 12.4 Merit and Demerits of Nanoparticles in Soil–Water-Plant System and Scope of Work References 13 Nano-Enabled Remediation of Arsenic-Bearing Water and Wastewater 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Nanoadsorbents Classification and Applications 13.2.1 Types of Nanoparticles Used for Arsenic Removal 13.2.2 Metallic-Based Nanoparticles 13.2.3 Bi-Metal Oxides Nanoparticles 13.3 Adsorption Process of Nanoparticles 13.4 Characterization of Nanoparticles 13.5 Regeneration of Nanoparticles 13.6 Influence of Different Parameters on NPs 13.6.1 Effect of pH 13.6.2 Effect of Synthesis Method 13.6.3 Effect of Initial Arsenic Concentration 13.6.4 Effect of Nanoparticle Size 13.6.5 Effect of Competing Ions 13.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 14 Molecular Aspects of Arsenic Responsive Microbes in Soil-Plant-Aqueous Triphasic Systems 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Arsenic Distribution in Soil-water-Plant-Microbiome 14.2.1 Arsenic Release from Aquifers and Contamination of Soil-Sediments 14.2.2 Arsenic Stress Response in Plants and Microbial Involvement 14.3 Development of As Resistance Mechanism in Microbes 14.4 Microbial Detoxification Mechanisms for Arsenicals in the Environment 14.4.1 The Entry of As into the Microbial Cells 14.4.2 Reduction of As(V) 14.4.3 Oxidation of As(III) 14.4.4 Methylation of As(III) 14.5 Factors Influencing As Biotransformation 14.6 Arsenomics 14.6.1 Microbial Arsenic Resistance and Transcriptomics Studies 14.6.2 Microbial Proteomics of Arsenic Responsive Strategies 14.7 Plant Growth Enhancement by Microbial Amelioration 14.8 Microbial Applicability as Engineered Bioagent 14.9 Microbial Environmental Clean-Up and Restoration 14.10 Concluding Remarks and Future Aspects References 15 Phosphate-Induced Phytoextraction by Pteris vittata Reduced Arsenic Uptake by Rice 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Materials and Methods 15.2.1 Soil Sampling and Characterization 15.2.2 Green House Study and Rice Cultivation 15.2.3 Sequential Fractionation of Soil As and Available As Analysis 15.2.4 Sample Digestion and Analysis 15.2.5 Human Health Risk Assessment 15.2.6 Statistical Analysis 15.3 Results 15.3.1 Biomass Yield of the Fern 15.3.2 Arsenic Uptake by the Fern 15.3.3 Changes in Soil As Fractions 15.3.4 Rice Yield and As Content in Rice 15.3.5 Arsenic Uptake by Rice Grain 15.3.6 Lifetime Cancer Risk (CR) Associated with Ingestion Exposure was Calculated Using 15.4 Discussion References 16 Modified Biosorbents as Potential Biomaterials for Arsenic Removal from Contaminated Water 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Environmental Factors Influencing Arsenic Sorption 16.2.1 Effect of pH 16.2.2 Effect of Contact Time 16.2.3 Effect of Arsenic Ions Concentration 16.2.4 Effect of Sorbent Dose 16.2.5 Effect of Anions 16.3 Mechanism of Arsenic Sorption 16.3.1 Physical Sorption 16.3.2 Ion Exchange 16.3.3 Complexation 16.3.4 Chemisorption 16.3.5 Precipitation 16.4 Modification Methods 16.4.1 Polyethylenimine (PEI) Modified Zea Mays 16.4.2 Aluminium Modified Guava Seeds 16.4.3 Sodium Bicarbonate Modified Wheat Straw 16.4.4 Citric Acid Treated Water Melon Rind 16.4.5 Fe(III) Oxyhydroxide Modified Sawdust of Spruce 16.4.6 Modified TiO2 Pomegrante Peel 16.4.7 Polyethylenimine (PEI) Leucaena Leucocephala (Subabul) Seed Powder 16.4.8 2-Mercaptoethanol Modified Sugarcane Bagasse 16.4.9 Modified Chicken Feathers by Diverse Doping Agents 16.4.10 Agricultural-Based Biowaste (Orange Peel, Banana Peel and Rice Husk) 16.4.11 Perilla Leaf Biochar with Modified Spectroscopic and Macroscopic Investigation 16.4.12 HPEI Modified Biosorbent Based on Cellulose Fiber 16.4.13 Date Seeds Husk Modified with Lemon Juice and Microwave Provision 16.4.14 Removal of Arsenic with the Use of Tamarind Bark 16.4.15 Chemically Modified Fungal Biomass 16.4.16 Chitosan-Coated Modified Biosorbent 16.5 Conclusion References 17 Phytoremedial Potential of Perennial Woody Vegetation Under Arsenic Contaminated Conditions in Diverse Environments 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Sources of Arsenic 17.2.1 Natural Sources 17.2.2 Anthropogenic Sources 17.3 Factor Affecting Arsenic Uptake by Trees 17.3.1 Soil Properties 17.3.2 Soil Types (Sand, Silt and Clay Interaction) 17.4 Impact of Various Geo-Environmental Factors on Phytoremediation of Arsenic-Contaminated Soils 17.5 Phytoremediation of Arsenic Through Woody Vegetation 17.5.1 Phytostablization 17.5.2 Phytoextraction 17.5.3 Phytodegradation 17.5.4 Rhizodegradation 17.5.5 Rhizofiltration 17.5.6 Potential of Tree Species to Remediate Arsenic 17.6 Conclusion References 18 Bacterial Tolerance and Biotransformation of Arsenic in Soil and Aqueous Media 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Arsenic in the Environment: Sources and Toxicity 18.3 As Remediation in the Environment 18.3.1 Conventional Methods for As Remediation and Their Disadvantages 18.3.2 Bioremediation of Arsenic from the Environment 18.4 Arsenic Bacteria Interactions in the Environment 18.4.1 Arsenic Resistance in Bacteria 18.4.2 Arsinite [As(III)] Oxidation by Bacteria 18.4.3 Arsenate Reduction by Bacteria 18.4.4 Arsenic Adsorption by Bacteria 18.4.5 Arsenic Methylation and Demethylation by Bacteria 18.4.6 Arsenic Volatilization by Bacteria 18.5 Environmental Factors Affecting the Biotranformations of Arsenic by Bacteria 18.6 Applications of Bacteria for Bioremediation of Arsenic in Soil and Water 18.6.1 Removal from Water 18.6.2 Removal from Soil 18.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 19 Arsenic Bioremediation of Soil and Water Systems—An Overview 19.1 Introduction 19.1.1 Arsenic (As) in Soil–Water System 19.2 Remediation Measures 19.2.1 Physicochemical Methods 19.2.2 Bioremediation Approaches 19.3 Concluding Remarks References 20 Modern Aspects of Phytoremediation of Arsenic-Contaminated Soils 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Origin and Occurrence of Arsenic 20.3 Historical Usage of Arsenic 20.4 Arsenic Phytoremediation 20.4.1 Phytoextraction 20.4.2 Phytostabilization 20.4.3 Phytofiltration 20.4.4 Phytovoltalization 20.5 Consumption and Transportation of Arsenic in Plants 20.5.1 Transportation of Arsenic in Plants by Phosphate Carriers 20.5.2 Transport of Arsenic by Aquaporins 20.5.3 Involvement of Silicon Carriers in Transportation of Arsenic 20.5.4 Consumption and Transportation of Methylated Arsenic Species in Plants 20.5.5 Consumption and Transportation of Thioarsenate Species in Plants 20.5.6 Process of Arsenic Decontamination in Plants 20.6 Integrated Approaches for Enhanced Phytoremediation 20.6.1 Phytobial Remediation 20.6.2 Transgenic Phyto and Phytobial Remediation 20.6.3 Phytoaugmentation (Addition of Abiotic Factors) 20.6.4 Nano Phytoremediation 20.6.5 Phytosuctionpartition 20.6.6 Electrokinesis Assisted Phytoremediation 20.6.7 Co-cultivation and Intercropping 20.7 Disposal of Plants After Remediation 20.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective References 21 Nanoparticulate Iron Oxide Minerals for Arsenic Removal from Contaminated Water 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Technologies for Arsenic Removal from Water 21.3 Traditional Techniques 21.3.1 Physicochemical Technologies for Arsenic Removal 21.3.2 Biological Methods for Arsenic Removal 21.4 Production of Nanoparticles and Their Implications 21.5 Technology for Nanoparticles Biosynthesis 21.6 Biocompatible Green Reagents Synthesis Biopolymers 21.7 Arsenic Removal Using Nanoparticulate Iron Oxides 21.8 Arsenic Removal Adsorption Process 21.8.1 Coagulation/Flocculation 21.8.2 Ion Exchange Method 21.9 Adsorption of Arsenic on Nano-Iron Enabled Minerals 21.9.1 Nano Iron Oxide Minerals for Arsenic Adsorption 21.9.2 Arsenic Adsorption on Nanoparticulate Iron Oxide Minerals and Effect of Various Factors 21.9.3 Adsorption of Arsenic by Iron Oxide Minerals in Water 21.10 Arsenic Adsorption Mechanisms on Nanoparticulate Iron Oxide Minerals 21.11 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 22 Arsenic-Toxicity and Tolerance: Phytochelatin-Mediated Detoxification and Genetic Engineering-Based Remediation 22.1 Introduction: Why is Arsenic One of the Most Toxic Elements on Earth? 22.2 How is As Taken up by Plants and Translocated to Different Plant Parts? 22.2.1 Bioavailability and As Speciation in Soil 22.2.2 Arsenic Uptake and Translocation by Plants from Soil 22.3 What Effects As Induce on Plant Metabolism, Growth, Physiology and Yield? 22.3.1 Cellular Effects of As-Toxicity 22.3.2 Metabolic Effects of As-Toxicity 22.4 How Do Plants Counter As-Induced Stress? 22.4.1 Arsenic-Sequestration Mediated Detoxification 22.4.2 Cellular Antioxidants-Mediated Scavenging of Generated Oxidative Stress 22.5 How Can Genetic Engineering Help in As-Stress Alleviation? 22.6 Conclusion and Future Directions References 23 Distribution of Arsenic in Rice Grain from West Bengal, India: Its Relevance to Geographical Origin, Variety, Cultivars and Cultivation Season 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Materials and Methods 23.2.1 Study Area 23.2.2 Sample Collection, Preparation and Preservation 23.2.3 Chemicals and Reagents for Arsenic Analysis 23.2.4 Digestion 23.2.5 Arsenic Analysis 23.2.6 Quality Control and Quality Assurance 23.3 Results and Discussion 23.3.1 Contamination Quotient of Arsenic in Rice Grain with Respect to Its Different Cultivation Areas 23.3.2 Appraisal of Arsenic Concentration in Rice Grain with Respect to Its Varied Range of Cultivars 23.3.3 Rice Grain Arsenic Assimilation Scenario with Respect to Its Sunned or Parboiled Variety 23.3.4 Cultivation Seasons and Its Impact on Rice Grain Arsenic Accumulation 23.4 Conclusive Remarks and Future Remedial Aspects for Rice Grain Arsenic Contamination References 24 Arsenic Contamination in Soil and Water Across South East Asia: Its Impact and Mitigation Strategies 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Status of Arsenic Pollution in South East Asia 24.2.1 Bangladesh 24.2.2 Cambodia 24.2.3 China 24.2.4 India 24.2.5 Myanmar 24.2.6 Nepal 24.2.7 Pakistan 24.2.8 Thailand 24.2.9 Vietnam 24.3 Factors Influencing Arsenic Mobilization and Uptake by Crops 24.3.1 Arsenic Speciation 24.3.2 Soil Organic Matter 24.3.3 Soil pH 24.3.4 Soil Moisture 24.3.5 Soil Texture 24.4 Impact of Arsenic Toxicity on Growth and Productivity of Plants 24.4.1 Seed Germination 24.4.2 Growth 24.4.3 Yield 24.4.4 Oxidative Stress 24.5 Strategies to Mitigate Arsenic Toxicity 24.5.1 Microbial Bioremediation of Arsenic 24.5.2 Phytoremediation 24.5.3 Irrigation Management 24.5.4 Fertilizer Management 24.5.5 Biochar 24.6 Future Perspectives 24.7 Conclusion References