Biorefinery: A Sustainable Approach for the Production of Biomaterials, Biochemicals and Biofuels

Description

This book discusses recent trends and concepts in the field of biorefinery. It discusses optimal and economic strategies for converting biomass to value-added products to maximize profits with minimal environmental impact with a sustainability approach. The chapters of the book are focused on the current technologies, techno-economical aspects, life cycle assessment, and case studies. The book is divided into three sections; the first section presents strategies for the production of biofuels like bioethanol, biomethane, biohydrogen, bio-oil, gasification, etc., from the biomass in a sustainable way. The second sections review the extraction of bioactive chemicals, phenolic antioxidants, enzymes, and carboxylic acid from the biomass residue. The last section examines the utilization of biomass for the production of bioactive materials, including biofertilizers, bioadsorbents, activated carbon, nano-materials, and pigments. This book explores the relation between biofuels and the sustainable development goals (SDGs) 7. Preface Contents Editors and Contributors Part I: Biochemicals 1: Mixed Culture Polyhydroxyalkanoate Production as a Wood Processing Biorefinery Option 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Feedstocks 1.3 Feedstock Conversion Processes 1.3.1 Processes to Produce Sugars 1.3.1.1 Dilute Acid Hydrolysis 1.3.1.2 Concentrated Acid Hydrolysis 1.3.1.3 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 1.3.1.4 Hydrolysis in Near-Supercritical Water (SCW) 1.3.2 Processes to Produce Volatile Fatty Acids 1.3.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion 1.3.2.2 Wet Oxidation 1.3.3 Theoretical Sugar Yields 1.4 Mixed Microbial Consortia PHA Production Process 1.4.1 Consortia Enrichment 1.4.2 PHA Accumulation 1.4.3 PHA Recovery 1.5 PHA Production Potential 1.5.1 Conceptual Design 1.5.2 PHA Yield and Productivity 1.6 PHA Product Concepts 1.6.1 Global Market Applications for Extracted PHA 1.6.2 Market Applications for Mixed Culture Un-Extracted PHAs 1.7 Conclusion References 2: Biomass Polysaccharides to Building Blocks: Obtaining Renewable Organic Acids 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Lignocellulosic Biomass: A Novel Renewable Resource 2.1.2 Biomass Fractionation and Reducing Sugar Extraction Strategies 2.1.3 Purification Treatments 2.2 Global Value and Applications of Some Organic Acids 2.3 Production of Organic Acids from Biomass Polysaccharides 2.3.1 Lactic Acid (LA) 2.3.2 Levulinic Acid (LEA) 2.3.3 Propionic Acid (PA) 2.3.4 Formic Acid (FA) 2.3.5 Succinic Acid (SA) 2.3.6 Acetic Acid (HAc) 2.4 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends References 3: Biochemical and Chemical Catalytic Routes for the Production of Biochemicals from Biomass: Current Status and Future Perspe... 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Biochemical Conversion Route for the Production of Biochemicals 3.2.1 Pretreatment Approaches 3.2.2 Enzymatic Saccharification 3.2.2.1 Solid Loading 3.2.2.2 Enzyme Loading 3.2.2.3 Shaking Speed 3.2.2.4 Additives 3.2.3 Fermentation 3.3 Chemical Catalytic Route for the Production of Biochemicals 3.3.1 Acid-Catalyzed Hydrolysis 3.3.2 Acid-Catalyzed Dehydration 3.3.3 Catalytic Hydrogenation 3.3.4 Catalytic Oxidation 3.4 Current Status and Future Perspectives 3.5 Conclusion References 4: Challenges in Biobutanol Fermentation and Separation 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Butanol: A Biofuel 4.3 ABE Fermentative Pathway of Clostridium Bacteria 4.4 Microbes Used for ABE Fermentation 4.5 Substrates Used for ABE Fermentation 4.6 Challenges in ABE Fermentation 4.7 Biobutanol Fermentation 4.8 Extractive Fermentation of Butanol 4.9 Biocompatibility of Surfactants 4.10 Downstream Processing 4.10.1 Distillation 4.10.2 Adsorption 4.10.3 Gas Stripping 4.10.4 Liquid-Liquid Extraction 4.10.5 Pervaporation 4.11 Conclusions References 5: State-of-the-Art Technologies for Production of Biochemicals from Lignocellulosic Biomass 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Composition and Sources of Lignocellulosic Biomass 5.3 Pretreatment Methods 5.3.1 Fundamental Pretreatment Methods 5.3.2 Traditional Pretreatment Methods 5.3.2.1 Pretreatments with Chemical Reagents Acid Pretreatment Alkaline Pretreatment Oxidative Pretreatment Organosolv Pretreatment Ammonia Fibre Expansion (AFEX) 5.3.2.2 Pretreatments Without Chemical Reagents Hydrothermal Pretreatment Steam Explosion Pretreatment Biological Pretreatment 5.3.3 Emerging Methods 5.3.3.1 Microwave-Assisted Heating Pretreatment 5.3.3.2 Ultrasonic-Assisted Heating Pretreatment 5.3.3.3 Green Solvents Supercritical Fluids (SCFs) Ionic Liquids (ILs) Deep Eutectic Solvents (DESs) 5.3.3.4 Other Emerging Methods 5.4 Lignocellulosic Biomass to Value-Added Biochemicals 5.4.1 Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) 5.4.2 2,5-Furandicarboxylic Acid (FDCA) 5.4.3 Levulinic Acid (LVA) 5.5 Conclusion References Part II: Biomaterials 6: Current Approaches for Polyurethane Production from Lignin 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Polyols for Polyurethane Production 6.2.1 Polyols from Lignocellulosic Biomass 6.2.2 Liquefaction with Polyhydric Alcohols 6.2.3 Oxyalkylation or Oxypropylation 6.3 Types of Polyurethane Products 6.3.1 Type of Classifications 6.3.1.1 Polyurethanes Based on Their Structure 6.3.1.2 Polyurethanes Based on Their Thermal Behavior 6.3.1.3 Polyurethanes Based on Their Origin 6.3.1.4 Polyurethanes Based on Their Product Applications 6.3.2 Polyurethane Foams (PUF) 6.3.3 Polyurethane Coatings, Adhesives, Sealants, and Elastomers (CASE) 6.3.4 Polyurethane Fibers (PUFI) 6.3.5 Polyurethane Smart Materials (PUSM) 6.4 Greener Alternatives for Polyurethane Synthesis 6.4.1 Bio-Based Isocyanates 6.4.2 Non-isocyanate Polyurethanes (NIPU) 6.4.3 Synthesis of NIPUs Through Polyaddition Between Cyclic Carbonates and Amines 6.4.3.1 Synthesis of Cyclic Carbonates from Bio-Based Resources 6.4.3.2 Synthesis of Polyamines from Bio-Based Resources 6.4.3.3 Lignin-Based Poly(Hydroxyurethane)S (PHUs) Via Polyaddition Pathway 6.5 Life Cycle Assessment and Techno-Economic Analysis of Lignin Polyurethanes 6.6 Conclusions References 7: Biobased Graphene for Synthesis of Nanophotocatalysts in the Treatment of Wastewater: A Review and Future Perspective 7.1 Background 7.2 Graphene 7.2.1 Synthesis Method of Graphene 7.2.2 Conventional Precursor for Graphene Synthesis 7.2.3 Bio-Based Precursor for Graphene Synthesis 7.2.3.1 Rice Husk 7.2.3.2 Chitosan 7.2.3.3 Glucose 7.2.3.4 Hemp Fiber 7.2.3.5 Alginate 7.3 Graphene-Based Nanophotocatalysts 7.4 Plausible Mechanism of Photocatalysis by Graphene-Semiconductor Nanocomposite 7.5 Photocatalyst in Wastewater Treatment 7.5.1 Graphene-Based Nanophotocatalysts for Wastewater Treatment 7.5.1.1 Removal of Dyes 7.5.1.2 Removal of Antibiotics 7.5.1.3 Removal of Pesticides 7.6 Comparison of Conventional Precursors and Biomass-Based Precursors 7.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nanophotocatalyst 7.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 8: Utilization of Rice and Sugarcane Ashes in Wastewater Treatment: A Case Study for Pesticide Removal from Aqueous Solution 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Need of Wastewater Treatment 8.1.2 Biomass and Various Biomass Ashes 8.1.3 Rice Husk Ash and Bagasse Fly Ash 8.1.4 Utilization of RHA and BFA 8.2 Adsorption 8.3 Biomass Ashes as an Adsorbent 8.4 A Case Study 8.5 Conclusion References 9: Trends and Scope of Utilization of Biochar in Wastewater Treatment 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Types of Biomass Suitable for Biochar Production 9.3 Processes for Biochar Production 9.3.1 Pretreatment 9.3.2 Thermal Treatment Processes 9.3.3 Posttreatment of Biochar 9.4 Specific Characteristics of Biochar 9.5 Classification of Activated Carbon 9.5.1 Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) 9.5.2 Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) 9.5.3 Activated Carbon Rods (CTO) 9.5.4 Activated Carbon Fiber (ACF) 9.5.5 Activated Carbon According to the Different Activators 9.6 Biochar-Based Green Adsorbent 9.7 Conclusion References Part III: Biofuels and Biorefinery 10: Biodiesel from Biomass: Production of Sustainable Biodiesel Fuel 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Process for Production of Biodiesel 10.2.1 Enzyme-Catalyzed Biodiesel Production 10.2.2 Transesterification Process 10.2.3 Oil Extraction 10.2.4 Transesterification 10.2.5 Homogeneous Catalysts 10.2.6 Heterogeneous Catalysts 10.2.7 Nanocatalysts 10.3 Scope and Challenges for Biodiesel Usage 10.4 Global Biodiesel Policies 10.5 Conclusion and Future Direction References 11: Bioethanol Production from Agricultural Biomass: Sources of Cellulose, Pretreatment Methods, and Future Prospects 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Source of Cellulose 11.2.1 Structure 11.2.2 Types of Cellulose 11.2.2.1 Plant Cellulose 11.2.2.2 Cellulose from Wood 11.2.2.3 Cellulose from Non-wood 11.2.2.4 Bacterial Cellulose 11.2.2.5 Algal Cellulose 11.2.2.6 Animal Cellulose 11.3 Pretreatment 11.3.1 Physical Pretreatment 11.3.1.1 Mechanical 11.3.1.2 Extrusion/Pyrolysis Treatment 11.3.1.3 Popping Pretreatment 11.3.2 Physicochemical Pretreatments 11.3.2.1 Liquid Hot Water 11.3.2.2 Steam Explosion 11.3.2.3 Ammonia Fiber Expansion 11.3.2.4 Wet Oxidation Pretreatment 11.3.2.5 Oxidative Pretreatment 11.3.2.6 CO2 Explosion 11.3.2.7 Microwave Pretreatment 11.3.2.8 Ultrasound Pretreatment 11.3.3 Chemical Pretreatment 11.3.3.1 Concentrated or Diluted Acid 11.3.3.2 Alkali Treatment 11.3.3.3 Organosolv 11.3.3.4 Ozonolysis 11.3.3.5 Ionic Liquid Pretreatment 11.3.4 Biological Pretreatment 11.3.4.1 Bacterial Pretreatment 11.3.4.2 Fungal Pretreatment 11.3.5 Combined Pretreatment 11.4 Biomass Fermentation 11.5 Green Energy Generation in India 11.6 Future Prospects 11.7 Conclusion References 12: A Novel Mango (Mangifera indica L.) Seed Waste-Based Biorefinery Scheme 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Development of Mango Waste-Based-Multiproduct Biorefinery Scheme 12.2.1 Selection of Products 12.2.2 Fractionation Sequence 12.2.2.1 Mango Seed Kernel Fractionation Unbound Polyphenols Starch Hemicellulose 12.2.2.2 Mango Seed Husk Fractionation Hemicellulose Lignin Cellulose Nanocrystals 12.2.3 Characterization of Mango Seed Waste and Products 12.3 Implementation of the Mango Waste Multi-step Integrated Biorefinery 12.3.1 Sequential Mango Seed Kernel Fractionation 12.3.2 Fractionation of Mango Seed Husk 12.3.3 Cellulose Nanocrystals from Mango Seed Husk 12.4 Challenges of Establishing a Mango Waste-Based Biorefinery 12.4.1 Practical Challenges 12.4.1.1 Seasonality 12.4.1.2 Storability 12.4.1.3 Moisture Content 12.4.1.4 Location 12.4.2 Economic 12.4.3 Technology 12.4.4 Energy 12.5 Conclusions References 13: Applications of Life Cycle Assessment in Biorefinery: Case Study on Mango Peel Waste Biorefinery 13.1 Introduction 13.2 LCA in Biorefinery: Need and State of Art 13.3 LCA Framework 13.3.1 Goal and Scope 13.3.2 Life Cycle Inventory 13.3.3 Impact Assessment Method 13.3.4 Interpretation 13.4 Mango Peel Waste Biorefinery: LCA Approach 13.4.1 Goal and Scope 13.4.1.1 System Boundaries 13.4.1.2 Functional Unit 13.4.2 Impact Assessment Method 13.4.3 Interpretation 13.4.4 Limitations of the Study 13.5 Conclusion References 14: Sustainable Fruit Peel Waste Biorefinery: Challenges and Future Perspectives 14.1 Introduction 14.2 The Concept of Biorefinery 14.3 Challenges and Future Prospectives 14.3.1 FPW Variety 14.3.2 Storage, Handling, Transportation, and Cost 14.3.3 Effect of Preservatives and Pesticides 14.3.4 Use of Land 14.3.5 Predictable RandD Ventures 14.3.6 Pretreatment 14.3.7 Multiple Products 14.3.8 Standardization of Biorefinery 14.3.9 Use of Technologies 14.3.10 Pilot Plant Study 14.3.11 Scale Up 14.3.12 Biorefinery Size 14.3.13 Waste Disposal 14.3.14 Policies for Farmers 14.3.15 Integration Between Policies 14.3.16 Awareness About FPW 14.3.17 Use of Edible Biomass 14.4 Conclusion References 15: Tomato Utilization: Techno-Economic and Social Aspects 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Valuable Products by Tomato Food Processing 15.3 Valorization of Tomato Processing Unit (TPU) Waste 15.3.1 Production of Carotenoids 15.3.2 Seed Oil 15.3.3 Antioxidants 15.3.4 Fermentation Products 15.3.5 Pectin Production 15.3.6 Water Treatment Agent 15.3.7 Biofilter 15.3.8 Compost 15.3.9 Biofilms 15.3.10 Nanofluids 15.3.11 Dietary Fibre 15.4 Waste/Rotten Tomato Utilization 15.5 Biorefinery Approach 15.6 Tomato Biorefinery: Technical, Economic and Social Perspective 15.7 Proposed Model 15.8 Conclusion References