Handbook of physics

Description

Handbook of Physycs Preface Contents Contributors Part I - Mechanics 1 Kinematics 1.1 Description of motion 1.1.1 Reference systems 1.1.2 Time 1.1.3 Length, area, volume 1.1.4 Angle 1.1.5 Mechanical systems 1.2 Motion in one dimension 1.2.1 Velocity 1.2.2 Acceleration 1.2.3 Simple motion in one dimension 1.3 Motion in several dimensions 1.3.1 Velocity vector 1.3.2 Acceleration vector 1.3.3 Free-fall and projectile motion 1.4 Rotational motion 1.4.1 Angular velocity 1.4.2 Angular acceleration 1.4.3 Orbital velocity 2 Dynamics 2.1 Fundamental laws of dynamics 2.1.1 Mass and momentum 2.1.2 Newton’s laws 2.1.3 Orbital angular momentum 2.1.4 Torque 2.1.5 The fundamental law of rotational dynamics 2.2 Forces 2.2.1 Weight 2.2.2 Spring torsion forces 2.2.3 Frictional forces 2.3 Inertial forces in rotating reference systems 2.3.1 Centripetal and centrifugal forces 2.3.2 Coriolis force 2.4 Work and energy 2.4.1 Work 2.4.2 Energy 2.4.3 Kinetic energy 2.4.4 Potential energy 2.4.5 Frictional work 2.5 Power 2.5.1 Efficiency 2.6 Collision processes 2.6.1 Elastic straight-line central collisions 2.6.2 Elastic off-center central collisions 2.6.3 Elastic non-central collision with a body at rest 2.6.4 Inelastic collisions 2.7 Rockets 2.7.1 Thrust 2.7.2 Rocket equation 2.8 Systems of point masses 2.8.1 Equations of motion 2.8.2 Momentum conservation law 2.8.3 Angular momentum conservation law 2.8.4 Energy conservation law 2.9 Lagrange’s and Hamilton’s equations 2.9.1 Lagrange’s equations and Hamilton’s principle 2.9.2 Hamilton’s equations 3 Rigid bodies 3.1 Kinematics 3.1.1 Density 3.1.2 Center of mass 3.1.3 Basic kinematic quantities 3.2 Statics 3.2.1 Force vectors 3.2.2 Torque 3.2.3 Couples 3.2.4 Equilibrium conditions of statics 3.2.5 Technical mechanics 3.2.6 Machines 3.3 Dynamics 3.4 Moment of inertia and angular momentum 3.4.1 Moment of inertia 3.4.2 Angular momentum 3.5 Work, energy and power 3.5.1 Kinetic energy 3.5.2 Torsional potential energy 3.6 Theory of the gyroscope 3.6.1 Tensor of inertia 3.6.2 Nutation and precession 3.6.3 Applications of gyroscopes 4 Gravitation and the theory of relativity 4.1 Gravitational field 4.1.1 Law of gravitation 4.1.2 Planetary motion 4.1.3 Planetary system 4.2 Special theory of relativity 4.2.1 Principle of relativity 4.2.2 Lorentz transformation 4.2.3 Relativistic effects 4.2.4 Relativistic dynamics 4.3 General theory of relativity and cosmology 4.3.1 Stars and galaxies 5 Mechanics of continuous media 5.1 Theory of elasticity 5.1.1 Stress 5.1.2 Elastic deformation 5.1.3 Plastic deformation 5.2 Hydrostatics, aerostatics 5.2.1 Liquids and gases 5.2.2 Pressure 5.2.3 Buoyancy 5.2.4 Cohesion, adhesion, surface tension 5.3 Hydrodynamics, aerodynamics 5.3.1 Flow field 5.3.2 Basic equations of ideal flow 5.3.3 Real flow 5.3.4 Turbulent flow 5.3.5 Scaling laws 5.3.6 Flow with density variation 6 Nonlinear dynamics, chaos and fractals 6.1 Dynamical systems and chaos 6.1.1 Dynamical systems 6.1.2 Conservative systems 6.1.3 Dissipative systems 6.2 Bifurcations 6.2.1 Logistic mapping 6.2.2 Universality 6.3 Fractals Formula symbols used in mechanics 7 Tables on mechanics 7.1 Density 7.1.1 Solids 7.1.2 Fluids 7.1.3 Gases 7.2 Elastic properties 7.3 Dynamical properties 7.3.1 Coefficients of friction 7.3.2 Compressibility 7.3.3 Viscosity 7.3.5 Surface tension Part II - Vibrations and Waves 8 Vibrations 8.1 Free undamped vibrations 8.1.1 Mass on a spring 8.1.2 Standard pendulum 8.1.3 Physical pendulum 8.1.4 Torsional vibration 8.1.5 Liquid pendulum 8.1.6 Electric circuit 8.2 Damped vibrations 8.2.1 Friction 8.2.2 Damped electric oscillator circuit 8.3 Forced vibrations 8.4 Superposition of vibrations 8.4.1 Superposition of vibrations of equal frequency 8.4.2 Superposition of vibrations of different frequencies 8.4.3 Superposition of vibrations in different directions and with different frequencies 8.4.4 Fourier analysis, decomposition into harmonics 8.5 Coupled vibrations 9 Waves 9.1 Basic features of waves 9.2 Polarization 9.3 Interference 9.3.1 Coherence 9.3.2 Interference 9.3.3 Standing waves 9.3.4 Waves with different frequencies 9.4 Doppler effect 9.4.1 Mach waves and Mach shock waves 9.5 Refraction 9.6.1 Phase relations 9.7 Dispersion 9.8 Diffraction 9.8.1 Diffraction by a slit 9.8.2 Diffraction by a grating 9.9 Modulation of waves 9.10 Surface waves and gravity waves 10 Acoustics 10.1 Sound waves 10.1.1 Sound velocity 10.1.2 Parameters of sound 10.1.3 Relative quantities 10.2 Sources and receivers of sound 10.2.1 Mechanical sound emitters 10.2.2 Electro-acoustic transducers 10.2.3 Sound absorption 10.2.4 Sound attenuation 10.2.5 Flow noise 10.3 Ultrasound 10.4 Physiological acoustics and hearing 10.4.1 Perception of sound 10.4.2 Evaluated sound levels 10.5 Musical acoustics 11 Optics 11.1 Geometric optics 11.1.1 Optical imaging—fundamental concepts 11.1.2 Reflection 11.1.3 Refraction 11.2 Lenses 11.2.1 Thick lenses 11.2.2 Thin lenses 11.3 Lens systems 11.3.1 Lenses with diaphragms 11.3.2 Image defects 11.4 Optical instruments 11.4.1 Pinhole camera 11.4.2 Camera 11.4.3 Eye 11.4.4 Eye and optical instruments 11.5 Wave optics 11.5.1 Scattering 11.5.2 Diffraction and limitation of resolution 11.5.3 Refraction in the wave picture 11.5.4 Interference 11.5.5 Diffractive optical elements 11.5.6 Dispersion 11.5.7 Spectroscopic apparatus 11.5.8 Polarization of light 11.6 Photometry 11.6.1 Photometric quantities 11.6.2 Photometric quantities Symbols used in formulae on vibrations, waves, acoustics and optics 12 Tables on vibrations, waves, acoustics and optics 12.1 Tables on vibrations and acoustics 12.2 Tables on optics Part III - Electricity 13 Charges and currents 13.1 Electric charge 13.1.1 Coulomb’s law 13.2 Electric charge density 13.3 Electric current 13.3.1 Ampere’s law 13.4 Electric current density 13.4.1 Electric current flow field 13.5 Electric resistance and conductance 13.5.1 Electric resistance 13.5.2 Electric conductance 13.5.3 Resistivity and conductivity 13.5.4 Mobility of charge carriers 13.5.5 Temperature dependence of the resistance 13.5.6 Variable resistors 13.5.7 Connection of resistors 14 Electric and magnetic fields 14.1 Electric field 14.2 Electrostatic induction 14.2.1 Electric field lines 14.2.2 Electric field strength of point charges 14.3 Force 14.4 Electric voltage 14.5 Electric potential 14.5.1 Equipotential surfaces 14.5.2 Field strength and potential of various charge distributions 14.5.3 Electric flux 14.5.4 Electric displacement in a vacuum 14.6 Electric polarization 14.6.1 Dielectric 14.7 Capacitance 14.7.1 Parallel-plate capacitor 14.7.2 Parallel connection of capacitors 14.7.3 Series connection of capacitors 14.7.4 Capacitance of simple arrangements of conductors 14.8 Energy and energy density of the electric field 14.9 Electric field at interfaces 14.10 Magnetic field 14.11 Magnetism 14.11.1 Magnetic field lines 14.12 Magnetic flux density 14.13 Magnetic flux 14.14 Magnetic field strength 14.15 Magnetic potential difference and magnetic circuits 14.15.1 Ampere’s law 14.15.2 Biot-Savart’s law 14.15.3 Magnetic field of a rectilinear conductor 14.15.4 Magnetic fields of various current distributions 14.16 Matter in magnetic fields 14.16.1 Diamagnetism 14.16.2 Paramagnetism 14.16.3 Ferromagnetism 14.16.4 Antiferromagnetism 14.16.5 Ferrimagnetism 14.17 Magnetic fields at interfaces 14.18 Induction 14.18.1 Faraday’s law of induction 14.18.2 Transformer induction 14.19 Self-induction 14.19.1 Inductances of geometric arrangements of conductors 14.19.2 Magnetic conductance 14.20 Mutual induction 14.20.1 Transformer 14.21 Energy and energy density of the magnetic field 14.22 Maxwell’s equations 14.22.1 Displacement current 14.22.2 Electromagnetic waves 14.22.3 Poynting vector 15 Applications in electrical engineering 15.1 Direct-current circuit 15.1.1 Kirchhoff’s laws for direct-current circuit 15.1.2 Resistors in a direct-current circuit 15.1.3 Real voltage source 15.1.4 Power and energy in the direct-current circuit 15.1.5 Matching for power transfer 15.1.6 Measurement of current and voltage 15.1.7 Resistance measurement by means of the compensation method 15.1.8 Charging and discharging of capacitors 15.1.9 Switching the current on and off in a RL-circuit 15.2 Alternating-current circuit 15.2.1 Alternating quantities 15.2.2 Representation of sinusoidal quantities in a phasor diagram 15.2.3 Calculation rules for phasor quantities 15.2.4 Basics of alternating-current engineering 15.2.5 Basic components in the alternating-current circuit 15.2.6 Series connection of resistor and capacitor 15.2.7 Parallel connection of a resistor and a capacitor 15.2.8 Parallel connection of a resistor and an inductor 15.2.9 Series connection of a resistor and an inductor 15.2.10 Series-resonant circuit 15.2.11 Parallel-resonant circuit 15.2.12 Equivalence of series and parallel connections 15.2.13 Radio waves 15.3 Electric machines 15.3.1 Fundamental functional principle 15.3.2 Direct-current machine 15.3.3 Three-phase machine 16 Current conduction in liquids, gases and vacuum 16.1 Electrolysis 16.1.1 Amount of substance 16.1.2 Ions 16.1.3 Electrodes 16.1.4 Electrolytes 16.1.5 Galvanic cells 16.1.6 Electrokinetic effects 16.2 Current conduction in gases 16.2.1 Non-self-sustained discharge 16.2.2 Self-sustained gaseous discharge 16.3 Electron emission 16.3.1 Thermo-ionic emission 16.3.2 Photo emission 16.3.3 Field emission 16.3.4 Secondary electron emission 16.4 Vacuum tubes 16.4.1 Vacuum-tube diode 16.4.2 Vacuum-tube triode 16.4.3 Tetrode 16.4.4 Cathode rays 16.4.5 Channel rays 17 Plasma physics 17.1 Properties of a plasma 17.1.1 Plasma parameters 17.1.2 Plasma radiation 17.1.3 Plasmas in magnetic fields 17.1.4 Plasma waves 17.2 Generation of plasmas 17.2.1 Thermal generation of plasma 17.2.2 Generation of plasma by compression 17.3 Energy production with plasmas 17.3.1 MHD generator 17.3.2 Nuclear fusion reactors 17.3.3 Fusion with magnetic confinement 17.3.4 Fusion with inertial confinement Symbols used in formulae on electricity and plasma physics 18 Tables on electricity 18.1 Metals and alloys 18.1.1 Specific electric resistance 18.1.2 Electrochemical potential series 18.2 Dielectrics 18.3 Practical tables of electric engineering 18.4 Magnetic properties 18.5 Ferromagnetic properties 18.5.1 Magnetic anisotropy 18.6 Ferrites 18.7 Antiferromagnets 18.8 Ion mobility Part IV - Thermodynamics 19 Equilibrium and state variables 19.1 Systems, phases and equilibrium 19.1.1 Systems 19.1.2 Phases 19.1.3 Equilibrium 19.2 State variables 19.2.1 State property definitions 19.2.2 Temperature 19.2.3 Pressure 19.2.4 Particle number, amount of substance and Avogadro number 19.2.5 Entropy 19.3 Thermodynamic potentials 19.3.1 Principle of maximum entropy—principle of minimum energy 19.3.2 Internal energy as a potential 19.3.3 Entropy as a thermodynamic potential 19.3.4 Free energy 19.3.5 Enthalpy 19.3.6 Free enthalpy 19.3.7 Maxwell relations 19.3.8 Thermodynamic stability 19.4 Ideal gas 19.4.1 Boyle-Mariotte law 19.4.2 Law of Gay-Lussac 19.4.3 Equation of state 19.5 Kinetic theory of the ideal gas 19.5.1 Pressure and temperature 19.5.2 Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution 19.5.3 Degrees of freedom 19.5.4 Equipartition law 19.5.5 Transport processes 19.6 Equations of state 19.6.1 Equation of state of the ideal gas 19.6.2 Equation of state of real gases 19.6.3 Equation of states for liquids and solids 20 Heat, conversion of energy and changes of state 20.1 Energy forms 20.1.1 Energy units 20.1.2 Work 20.1.3 Chemical potential 20.1.4 Heat 20.2 Energy conversion 20.2.1 Conversion of equivalent energies into heat 20.2.2 Conversion of heat into other forms of energy 20.2.3 Exergy and anergy 20.3 Heat capacity 20.3.1 Total heat capacity 20.3.2 Molar heat capacity 20.3.3 Specific heat capacity 20.4 Changes of state 20.4.1 Reversible and irreversible processes 20.4.2 Isothermal processes 20.4.3 Isobaric processes 20.4.4 Isochoric processes 20.4.5 Adiabatic (isentropic) processes 20.4.6 Equilibrium states 20.5 Laws of thermodynamics 20.5.1 Zeroth law of thermodynamics 20.5.2 First law of thermodynamics 20.5.3 Second law of thermodynamics 20.5.4 Third law of thermodynamics 20.6 Carnot cycle 20.6.1 Principle and application 20.6.2 Reduced heat 20.7 Thermodynamic machines 20.7.1 Right-handed and left-handed processes 20.7.2 Heat pump and refrigerator 20.7.3 Stirling cycle 20.7.4 Steam engine 20.7.5 Open systems 20.7.6 Otto and Diesel engines 20.7.7 Gas turbines 20.8 Gas liquefaction 20.8.1 Generation of low temperatures 20.8.2 Joule–Thomson effect 21 Phase transitions, reactions and equalizing of heat 21.1 Phase and state of aggregation 21.1.1 Phase 21.1.2 Aggregation states 21.1.3 Conversions of aggregation states 21.1.4 Vapor 21.2 Order of phase transitions 21.2.1 First-order phase transition 21.2.2 Second-order phase transition 21.2.3 Lambda transitions 21.2.4 Phase-coexistence region 21.2.5 Critical indices 21.3 Phase transition and Van der Waals gas 21.3.1 Phase equilibrium 21.3.2 Maxwell construction 21.3.3 Delayed boiling and delayed condensation 21.3.4 Theorem of corresponding states 21.4 Examples of phase transitions 21.4.1 Magnetic phase transitions 21.4.2 Order–disorder phase transitions 21.4.3 Change in the crystal structure 21.4.4 Liquid crystals 21.4.5 Superconductivity 21.4.6 Superfluidity 21.5 Multicomponent gases 21.5.1 Partial pressure and Dalton’s law 21.5.2 Euler equation and Gibbs–Duhem relation 21.6 Multiphase systems 21.6.1 Phase equilibrium 21.6.2 Gibbs phase rule 21.6.3 Clausius–Clapeyron equation 21.7 Vapor pressure of solutions 21.7.1 Raoult’s law 21.7.2 Boiling-point elevation and freezing-point depression 21.7.3 Henry–Dalton law 21.7.4 Steam–air mixtures (humid air) 21.8 Chemical reactions 21.8.1 Stoichiometry 21.8.2 Phase rule for chemical reactions 21.8.3 Law of mass action 21.8.4 pH-value and solubility product 21.9 Equalization of temperature 21.9.1 Mixing temperature of two systems 21.9.2 Reversible and irreversible processes 21.10 Heat transfer 21.10.1 Heat flow 21.10.2 Heat transfer 21.10.3 Heat conduction 21.10.4 Thermal resistance 21.10.5 Heat transmission 21.10.6 Heat radiation 21.10.7 Deposition of radiation 21.11 Transport of heat and mass 21.11.1 Fourier’s law 21.11.2 Continuity equation 21.11.3 Heat conduction equation 21.11.4 Fick’s law and diffusion equation 21.11.5 Solution of the equation of heat conduction and diffusion Formula symbols used in thermodynamics 22 Tables on thermodynamics 22.1 Characteristic temperatures 22.1.1 Units and calibration points 22.1.2 Melting and boiling points 22.1.3 Curie and Néel temperatures 22.2 Characteristics of real gases 22.3 Thermal properties of substances 22.3.1 Viscosity 22.3.2 Expansion, heat capacity and thermal conductivity 22.4 Heat transmission 22.5 Practical correction data 22.5.1 Pressure measurement 22.5.2 Volume measurements—conversion to standard temperature 22.6 Generation of liquid low-temperature baths 22.7 Dehydrators 22.8 Vapor pressure 22.8.1 Solutions 22.8.2 Relative humidity 22.8.3 Vapor pressure of water 22.9 Specific enthalpies Part V - Quantum physics 23 Photons, electromagnetic radiation and light quanta 23.1 Planck’s radiation law 23.2 Photoelectric effect 23.3 Compton effect 24 Matter waves—wave mechanics of particles 24.1 Wave character of particles 24.2 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle 24.3 Wave function and observable 24.4 Schrödinger equation 24.4.1 Piecewise constant potentials 24.4.2 Harmonic oscillator 24.4.3 Pauli principle 24.5 Spin and magnetic moments 24.5.1 Spin 24.5.2 Magnetic moments 25 Atomic and molecular physics 25.1 Fundamentals of spectroscopy 25.2 Hydrogen atom 25.2.1 Bohr’s postulates 25.3 Stationary states and quantum numbers in the central field 25.4 Many-electron atoms 25.5 X-rays 25.5.1 Applications of x-rays 25.6 Molecular spectra 25.7 Atoms in external fields 25.8 Periodic Table of elements 25.9 Interaction of photons with atoms and molecules 25.9.1 Spontaneous and induced emission 26 Elementary particle physics—standard model 26.1 Unification of interactions 26.1.1 Standard model 26.1.2 Field quanta or gauge bosons 26.1.3 Fermions and bosons 26.2 Leptons, quarks, and vector bosons 26.2.1 Leptons 26.2.2 Quarks 26.2.3 Hadrons 26.2.4 Accelerators and detectors 26.3 Symmetries and conservation laws 26.3.1 Parity conservation and the weak interaction 26.3.2 Charge conservation and pair production 26.3.3 Charge conjugation and antiparticles 26.3.4 Time-reversal invariance and inverse reactions 26.3.5 Conservation laws 26.3.6 Beyond the standard model 27 Nuclear physics 27.3 Nucleon-nucleon interaction 27.3.1 Phenomenologic nucleon-nucleon potentials 27.3.2 Meson exchange potentials 27.4 Nuclear models 27.4.1 Fermi-gas model 27.4.2 Nuclear matter 27.4.3 Droplet model 27.4.4 Shell model 27.4.5 Collective model 27.5 Nuclear reactions 27.5.1 Reaction channels and cross-sections 27.5.2 Conservation laws in nuclear reactions 27.5.3 Elastic scattering 27.5.4 Compound-nuclear reactions 27.5.5 Optical model 27.5.6 Direct reactions 27.5.7 Heavy-ion reactions 27.5.8 Nuclear fission 27.6 Nuclear decay 27.6.1 Decay law 27.6.2 α-decay 27.6.3 β-decay 27.6.4 γ -decay 27.6.5 Emission of nucleons and nucleon clusters 27.7 Nuclear reactor 27.7.1 Types of reactors 27.8 Nuclear fusion 27.9 Interaction of radiation with matter 27.9.1 Ionizing particles 27.9.2 γ -radiation 27.10 Dosimetry 27.10.1 Methods of dosage measurements 27.10.2 Environmental radioactivity 27.1 Constituents of the atomic nucleus 27.2 Basic quantities of the atomic nucleus 28 Solid-state physics 28.1 Structure of solid bodies 28.1.1 Basic concepts of solid-state physics 28.1.2 Structure of crystals 28.1.3 Bravais lattices 28.1.4 Methods for structure investigation 28.1.5 Bond relations in crystals 28.2 Lattice defects 28.2.1 Point defects 28.2.2 One-dimensional defects 28.2.3 Two-dimensional lattice defects 28.2.4 Amorphous solids 28.3 Mechanical properties of materials 28.3.1 Macromolecular solids 28.3.2 Compound materials 28.3.3 Alloys 28.3.4 Liquid crystals 28.4 Phonons and lattice vibrations 28.4.1 Elastic waves 28.4.2 Phonons and specific heat capacity 28.4.3 Einstein model 28.4.4 Debye model 28.4.5 Heat conduction 28.5 Electrons in solids 28.5.1 Free-electron gas 28.5.2 Band model 28.6 Semiconductors 28.6.1 Extrinsic conduction 28.6.2 Semiconductor diode 28.6.3 Transistor 28.6.4 Unipolar (field effect) transistors 28.6.5 Thyristor 28.6.6 Integrated circuits (IC) 28.6.7 Operational amplifiers 28.7 Superconductivity 28.7.1 Fundamental properties of superconductivity 28.7.2 High-temperature superconductors 28.8 Magnetic properties 28.8.1 Ferromagnetism 28.8.2 Antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism 28.9 Dielectric properties 28.9.1 Para-electric materials 28.9.2 Ferroelectrics 28.10 Optical properties of crystals 28.10.1 Excitons and their properties 28.10.2 Photoconductivity 28.10.3 Luminescence 28.10.4 Optoelectronic properties Formula symbols used in quantum physics 29 Tables in quantum physics 29.1 Ionization potentials 29.2 Atomic and ionic radii of elements 29.3 Electron emission 29.4 X-rays 29.5 Nuclear reactions 29.6 Interaction of radiation with matter 29.7 Hall effect 29.8 Superconductors 29.9 Semiconductors 29.9.1 Thermal, magnetic and electric properties of semiconductors Part VI - Appendix 30 Measurements and measurement errors 30.1 Description of measurements 30.1.1 Quantities and SI units 30.2 Error theory and statistics 30.2.1 Types of errors 30.2.2 Mean values of runs 30.2.3 Variance 30.2.4 Correlation 30.2.5 Regression analysis 30.2.6 Rate distributions 30.2.7 Reliability 31 Vector calculus 31.1.1 Vectors 31.1.2 Multiplication by a scalar 31.1.3 Addition and subtraction of vectors 31.1.4 Multiplication of vectors 32 Differential and integral calculus 32.1 Differential calculus 32.1.1 Differentiation rules 32.2 Integral calculus 32.2.1 Integration rules 32.3 Derivatives and integrals of elementary functions 33 Tables on the SI Index Natural constants in SI units Thermodynamic formulas Periodic table