Disinfection By-products in Drinking Water: Detection and Treatment

Description

Disinfection Byproducts in Drinking Water: Detection and Treatment presents cutting-edge research on how to understand the procedures, processes and considerations for detecting and treating disinfection by-products from drinking water, swimming pool water, and wastewater. The book begins with an overview of the different groups of Disinfection Byproducts (DBPs), such as: Trihalomethanes (THM), Halo acetic acids, and Haloacetonitrile (HAN). This coverage is quickly followed by a clear and rigorous exposition of the latest methods and technologies for the characterization, occurrence, formation, transformation and removal of DBPs in drinking water. Other chapters focus on ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, electron spin resonance, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Researchers will find a valuable resource to a breath of topics for DBP detection and treatment, including various recent techniques, such as microfiltration, nanofiltration membrane and nanotechnology. Explains the latest research in detection, treatment processes and remediation technologiesIncludes sampling, analytical and characterization methods and approachesCovers cutting-edge research, including membrane based technologies, nanotechnology treatment technologies and bioremediation treatment technologiesProvides background information regarding contamination sources Cover Disinfection By-products in Drinking Water; Detection and Treatment Copyright Contents List of contributors About the editor Professional experience Academic honors Visiting assignments in various universities—widely traveled Preface Acknowledgments 1 Methods used for the removal of disinfection by-products from water 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Disinfection by-products precursors 1.3 Occurrence and toxicology of disinfection by-products 1.4 Pressure-driven membrane techniques for disinfection by-products removal References 2 Physico-chemical techniques for the removal of disinfection by-products precursors from water 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Factors affecting the rate of trihalomethanes formation 2.1.1.1 Impact of natural organic matter characteristics on trihalomethanes formation 2.1.1.2 Impact of pH on trihalomethanes formation 2.1.1.3 Impact of reaction time on trihalomethanes formation 2.1.1.4 Impact of temperature on trihalomethans formation 2.1.1.5 Impact of chlorine dose on trihalomethans formation 2.1.1.6 Impact of bromide ion concentration on trihalomethans formation 2.1.2 Role of chlorine in trihalomethanes formation 2.1.3 Trihalomethane-mediated cancer risk assessment across globe 2.2 Coagulation 2.2.1 Flocculation 2.3 Aluminum-based coagulants 2.4 Iron-based coagulants 2.5 Organic polyelectrolytes 2.6 Inorganic polymer flocculants 2.6.1 Enhanced coagulation 2.7 Electrocoagulation 2.7.1 Mechanism of electrocoagulation process 2.7.2 Parameters affecting the efficiency of electrocoagulation process 2.7.2.1 Effect of current density 2.7.2.2 Impact of pH 2.7.2.3 Impact of alkalinity 2.7.2.4 Impact of electrode design 2.7.2.5 Impact of water conductivity 2.7.3 Impact of electrocoagulation process on the removal of aromatic fractions of natural organic matter from water 2.8 Membrane technology 2.8.1 Microfiltration 2.8.2 Ultrafiltration 2.8.3 Reverse osmosis 2.8.4 Nanofiltration 2.9 Adsorption 2.9.1 Carbon-based adsorbents 2.9.2 Nanoadsorbents 2.9.3 Magnetic nanoabsorbents 2.9.4 Ion exchange resin/adsorbents 2.9.5 Metal oxide and hydroxide-based absorbents 2.9.6 Composite and modified adsorbents 2.10 Conclusion References Further reading 3 Degradation of trihalomethanes using ultrasound-based nanocatalyst 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Advanced oxidation process and ultrasound 3.3 Trihalomethanes and ultrasound 3.4 Ultrasound-based nanocatalyst for trihalomethane degradation 3.4.1 Sonoluminescence 3.4.2 Cavitation 3.5 Conclusion References 4 Occurrence of trihalomethanes in drinking water of Indian states: a critical review 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Overview of trihalomethanes 4.2.1 Compounds of trihalomethanes 4.2.2 Formation of trihalomethanes 4.2.3 Toxicity of trihalomethanes 4.2.4 Treatment of trihalomethanes 4.3 Occurrence of trihalomethanes in India 4.3.1 Sources and detection of trihalomethanes in India 4.3.2 Studies of trihalomethane formation potential in water supplies 4.3.2.1 Conventional technique 4.3.2.1.1 Hyderabad city 4.3.2.1.2 Delhi city 4.3.2.1.3 Mumbai city 4.3.2.1.4 Kanpur city 4.3.2.1.5 Chennai city 4.3.2.1.6 Haryana and Uttrakand 4.3.2.2 Modeling technique 4.4 Risk assessment from trihalomethanes in drinking water supplies 4.5 Conclusion Abbreviations References 5 Emerging disinfection by-products in water: novel biofiltration techniques 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Ecotoxicological effects of disinfection by-products: global research studies 5.3 Formation and exposure of disinfection by-products in water environment: a new threat for endocrine disrupting chemical... 5.4 Analytical methods for disinfection by-products in water: review and approach to toxicity evaluation 5.5 Removal of disinfection by-product precursors in water: chemical, physical, and biological treatment 5.5.1 The progress of treatment technology: riverbank filtration, slow sand filters, rapid sand filters 5.5.2 Chemical technology: ozonation, membrane filtration, and nanofiltration 5.5.3 Biofilter technology evidencing biodegradation of disinfection by-products: current status 5.6 Conclusion Acknowledgment References Further reading 6 Research status in quo of disinfection by-products formation from algal organic matter as precursors 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Algae species and algal organic matter 6.2.1 Composition of algal organic matter 6.2.2 Analysis methods of algal organic matter 6.3 Algae/algal organic matters that adversely affect water quality 6.3.1 Cyanotoxins 6.3.2 Odorous substances 6.3.3 Precursors of disinfection by-products formation 6.4 Types and formation process of disinfection by-products formed by algal organic matter 6.4.1 Carbon-containing disinfection by-products 6.4.2 Nitrogen-containing disinfection by-products 6.5 Methods of removing algae/algal organic matter 6.5.1 Membrane filtration technology 6.5.2 Enhanced coagulation technology 6.5.3 Activated carbon treatment technology 6.5.4 Other technologies 6.6 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 7 Disinfection by-products in food and beverages 7.1 Application of disinfection in agricultural produce processing and implications 7.2 Sources of disinfection by-products in industrial processes 7.2.1 Factors influencing disinfectant activity and disinfection by-products formation 7.2.2 Sources and factors influencing disinfection by-products formation in beverages and other foods 7.3 Guidelines for control of disinfection by-products in food and beverages 7.4 Conclusion References Further reading 8 Disinfection by-product-induced diseases and human health risk 8.1 Guidelines for disinfection by-products in drinking water 8.2 Overview of health implications of disinfection by-products in drinking water 8.2.1 Exposure risk characterization and evaluation 8.2.2 Noncancer health outcomes 8.2.3 Epidemiological factors necessary for decision making 8.2.4 Challenges in predicting health risk to disinfection by-products exposure 8.3 Health risks with trihalomethanes 8.4 Health risks with haloacetic acids 8.5 Health risks with MX, chlorite, and other unregulated disinfection by-products 8.6 Conclusion References 9 Disinfection by-products and their effect on aquatic and agriculture ecosystem 9.1 Brief introduction 9.2 Microbial hazards associated with drinking water: need for disinfection 9.3 Disinfection 9.4 Toxicity of disinfection by-products on microbial diversity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem Abbreviations References Further reading 10 Disinfection by-products in swimming pools and health-related issues 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Types of disinfection by-products 10.3 Disinfection by-products in swimming pools 10.4 Pathogens in swimming pool 10.5 Factors influencing the formation of disinfection by-products 10.5.1 Health issues associated with disinfection by-products 10.6 Asthma 10.7 Lung hyperpermeability 10.8 Cancer 10.9 Reproduction 10.9.1 Impact of disinfection by-products on fertility 10.9.2 Fetal loss 10.9.3 Fetal growth 10.9.4 Gestational duration 10.9.5 Congenital malformations 10.10 Genotoxicity 10.11 Control of disinfection by-products in swimming pools References Further reading 11 Nanotechnology applications for removal of disinfection by-products from water 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Disinfection by-products 11.1.2 Present global status 11.1.3 Factors contributing to the formation of disinfection by-products in drinking water 11.1.3.1 Concentration and nature of precursors 11.1.3.2 Presence of ions 11.1.3.3 pH 11.1.3.4 Water temperature and season 11.1.3.5 Nature of disinfectant, concentration, and residual effects 11.1.3.6 Disinfection method 11.1.3.7 Pretreatment time and method 11.1.3.8 Contact time 11.1.4 Health effects of disinfection by-products 11.2 Minimizing disinfection by-product contaminations 11.2.1 A brief overview on minimizing strategies 11.2.2 Nanotechnologies for the removal of disinfection by-products 11.2.2.1 Carbon-based nanomaterials 11.2.2.1.1 Graphene oxide 11.2.2.1.2 Carbon nanotubes (multiwalled carbon nanotubes and single-walled carbon nanotubes) 11.2.2.2 Single component nanomaterials and metal–nonmetal nanocomposites 11.2.2.2.1 TiO2 11.2.2.2.2 Nanoamorphous calcium phosphate 11.2.2.2.3 Fe nanoparticles 11.2.2.2.4 Ag nanoparticles 11.2.2.2.5 Graphene oxide: TiO2 11.2.2.2.6 Multiwalled carbon nanotubes: Fe3O4 and γ-Fe2O3 11.2.2.2.7 SiO2–TiO2 11.2.2.2.8 Nano-MgO 11.2.2.2.9 Silica-nano-Fe 11.2.2.2.10 Graphene oxide-nano-Ag 11.2.2.2.11 Polystyrene-nano-Fe 11.2.2.2.12 Metal nanoparticle mixtures 11.2.2.2.13 Clay nanoparticles 11.2.2.2.14 Micronanobubbles 11.2.2.2.15 Nanomembranes 11.2.2.2.16 Nanocatalysts 11.3 Conclusions and future outlook References Further reading 12 Disinfection by-products in drinking water: detection and treatment methods 12.1 Introduction 12.1.1 Disinfection 12.1.1.1 Chlorination 12.1.1.2 Ultraviolet disinfection 12.1.1.3 Other disinfection processes 12.2 Hazardous effects of disinfection by-products 12.3 Identification of disinfection by-products 12.3.1 Gas chromatographic techniques 12.3.2 Liquid chromatographic techniques 12.3.3 Other identification methods 12.4 Control methods of disinfection by-products 12.4.1 Enhanced coagulation 12.4.2 Activated carbon 12.4.3 Ultraviolet rays 12.4.4 Ozone 12.4.5 Photo-Fenton 12.4.6 Photocatalyst 12.4.7 Filtration 12.4.8 Ion exchange 12.5 Conclusion References 13 Global disinfection by-products regulatory compliance framework overview, disinfection by-products in drinking water: de... 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Drinking water treatment and disinfection chemistry 13.2.1 Typical water treatment process 13.2.2 Disinfection by-product formation chemistry 13.2.2.1 Chlorination chemistry 13.2.2.2 Disinfection by-products classification 13.2.3 Regulated disinfection by-products 13.3 Global disinfection by-products regulatory standards 13.3.1 Regulatory standard versus enforcement 13.3.2 Regulatory standard versus feasibility 13.3.3 Regulatory standard versus relevancy 13.3.4 Global drinking water regulations timeline 13.3.5 Global disinfection by-products regulation statistics 13.4 Disinfection by-products standards enforcement strategies References Further reading 14 Recent research trends in controlling various types of disinfection by-products in drinking water: detection and treatment 14.1 History of disinfection 14.2 Background on disinfection and disinfection by-products 14.2.1 Disinfection of drinking water 14.2.2 Chemistry of chlorine disinfection 14.2.3 Disinfection by-product formation 14.2.4 Types of disinfection by-products 14.2.5 Disinfection by-products occurrence 14.2.6 disinfection by-products chemical structures and properties 14.3 Consequences of disinfection by-product intake and necessity to control 14.4 Removal of precursors 14.4.1 Background on precursors 14.4.2 Types of precursors and their properties 14.4.3 Advanced treatment technologies in use 14.5 Alternate and advanced disinfection methodologies 14.5.1 Alternate disinfectants 14.5.2 Advanced disinfectants 14.5.3 Preoxidation strategies 14.6 Operational improvements and adjustments for disinfection by-product control 14.6.1 Background on water treatment plant operations 14.6.2 Operational strategies and disinfection by-product control implications 14.6.3 Consecutive systems: operational strategies and disinfection by-product control implications 14.7 Drinking water quality modeling: prediction and management 14.7.1 Background on drinking water quality modeling 14.7.2 Types of prediction models 14.7.3 Results, interpretation, and reporting References 15 The occurrence of various types of disinfectant by-products (trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, haloacetonitrile) in dri... 15.1 Introduction 15.1.1 Background 15.1.2 Generation of disinfection by-products in drinking water 15.2 Occurrence of disinfection by-products 15.3 Types of disinfection by-products 15.3.1 Trihalomethanes 15.3.2 Haloacetic acids 15.3.3 Haloacetonitrile 15.4 Health effects 15.5 Regulations References Further reading 16 Water disinfection by-products cause acute toxicity in teleosts: a review 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Disinfection by-products: a closer look 16.2.1 Disinfection by-product and its implications: summarizing the global scenario 16.2.2 Toxicity assessment of disinfection by-products 16.3 Formation and classification of disinfection by-products 16.4 Impact of disinfection by-products on aquatic ecosystem with special reference to bony fish models 16.5 Disinfection by-products evoke reproductive toxicity 16.6 Disinfection by-products induce endocrine disruption 16.7 Future perspectives Acknowledgments Abbreviations References Further reading 17 Methods including biomarkers used for detection of disinfection by-products 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Method of analysis of disinfection by-products 17.2.1 Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry 17.2.2 Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy 17.2.3 Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry 17.2.4 Electron spin resonance 17.2.5 Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry 17.2.6 Other techniques 17.3 Biomarkers for disinfection by-products analysis: status and challenges 17.4 Future outlook 17.5 Conclusions Acknowledgment References 18 Factors affecting the formation of disinfection by-products in drinking water: human health risk 18.1 Water treatment 18.2 Types of water contaminants 18.3 Water disinfection for biological contaminants 18.4 Types of disinfectants 18.5 Types of disinfection by-products 18.6 Factors affecting concentration of disinfection by-products 18.6.1 Effect of temperature 18.6.2 Effect of pH 18.6.3 Effect of organic matter 18.6.4 Effect of free residual chlorine and chlorine dosage 18.6.5 Effect of cosmetics 18.6.6 Effect of contact time between disinfectant and water 18.6.7 Effect of ultraviolet irradiation 18.6.8 Effect of bromide concentration 18.7 Diagnosis of disinfection by-products in water 18.8 Standards for disinfection by-products 18.9 Disinfection by-products and human health 18.9.1 Effects on children 18.9.2 On adults 18.10 Possible remediation measures for disinfection by-products 18.11 Concluding remarks References Further reading Index Back Cover