Early Life on Earth: Evolution, Diversification, and Interactions

Description

This book comprehensively explores the early evolution of life and the Archean environment. Topics include the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, variations in metabolisms, concepts of ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles (nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorous), Archean geology and environments, and the widely accepted early evolutionary history of life. The text addresses controversies regarding early life and its environment, particularly the unusual microfossil assemblages from the 3.4 Ga Strelley Pool Formation and the 3.0 Ga Farrel Quartzite of Western Australia. Readers will get a fuller picture of the Archean world, and an appreciation of many still unresolved questions. Key Features Illustrated with figures visualizing ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles etc which are indispensable for understanding the Archean Earth. Includes tables arranging key words, definitions, and interpretations. Documents the Archean environment with photographic evidence and detailed descriptions the rocks, minerals and microfossils. Summarizes the latest field research. Details exciting unresolved questions for future study. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Preface Author Chapter 1 Space, Solar System, and the Earth 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Elements in the Universe and Their Origins 1.3 Evolution of Our Solar System 1.4 Evolution of the Earth’s Inner Structure 1.5 Origins of the Oceans and the Atmosphere Column: Meteorite References Chapter 2 Solid Earth 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Plate Tectonics, Driving Force of Dynamism of the Earth 2.3 Igneous Rocks 2.3.1 Classification Scheme 2.3.2 Granitic Rocks (Granitoids) 2.3.3 Basaltic Rocks 2.4 Sedimentary Rocks 2.4.1 Volcaniclastic (Pyroclastic) Rocks 2.4.2 Terrigenous Clastic Rocks 2.4.2.1 Factors Controlling Chemistry and Mineralogy of Terrigenous Clastic Rocks 2.4.2.2 Sedimentary Structures of Terrigenous Clastic Rocks and Their Implications 2.4.3 Biogenic, Chemical, and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks 2.4.3.1 Biogenic Sedimentary Rocks 2.4.3.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 2.4.3.3 Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks 2.5 Metamorphic Rocks Column: Geochemistry of Igneous Rocks and of Magmatic Processes References Chapter 3 Life on the Earth 1 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Chemical Evolution and Emergence of Life on the Earth 3.2.1 Revisit to Miller’s Experiment 3.2.2 Delivery of Building Blocks of Life from Space 3.2.3 Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Systems and Origin of Life 3.2.4 Terrestrial Hydrothermal Systems (Hot Springs): Another Candidates for Birthplace of Life 3.3 Classification of Life on the Earth 3.4 Diversity in Metabolisms 3.4.1 Autotrophy and Heterotrophy 3.4.2 Chemistry of Autotrophy 3.4.3 Chemistry of Heterotrophy 3.5 Ecosystem: Complex System of Life and Environment Column: Discovery of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Systems References Chapter 4 Life on the Earth 2 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Carbon 4.2.1 Deep Carbon Cycle 4.2.2 Modern Surface Carbon Cycle 4.2.2.1 Terrestrial Carbon Cycle 4.2.2.2 Oceanic Carbon Cycle 4.2.2.3 Sediment Carbon Cycle 4.2.3 Archean Carbon Cycle 4.3 Sulfur 4.3.1 Modern Sulfur Cycle 4.3.2 Archean Sulfur Cycle 4.4 Nitrogen 4.4.1 Modern Nitrogen Cycle 4.4.2 Archean Nitrogen Cycle 4.5 Phosphorous 4.5.1 Modern Phosphorous Cycle 4.5.2 Archean Phosphorous Cycle Column: Isotope and Isotope Fractionation References Chapter 5 Topics of the Early Precambrian Earth 1 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Archean Cratons 5.2.1 Distributions and Compositions of Archean Cratons 5.2.2 Origins of Archean Cratons 5.3 Early Continental Growth and Its Implications 5.3.1 Models of Continental Growth 5.3.2 Plate Tectonics and Continental Growth and Implications 5.4 Komatiite Volcanism and Its Significance 5.4.1 Komatiite and Its Origin 5.4.2 Serpentinization of Komatiite and Its Implications 5.5 Large Asteroid Impact and Its Implications 5.5.1 Paleo-and Mesoarchean Records of Asteroid Impacts 5.5.2 Identification of Large Asteroid Impacts 5.5.3 Implications of Large Asteroid Impacts 5.6 Archean Seawater Compositions and Products 1: Iron Formations 5.6.1 Clues to Archean Seawater Compositions 5.6.2 What Are Iron Formations? 5.6.3 Iron- Rich and Anoxic Deep Seawaters 5.6.4 Origins of Early to Mesoarchean Iron Formations 5.7 Archean Seawater Compositions and Products 2: Cherts 5.7.1 Silica and Chert 5.7.2 Archean Primary Cherts, Indicative of Silica- Rich Ocean 5.7.3 Formation Processes of Secondary Cherts 5.7.3.1 Hydrothermal Alteration of Oceanic Crusts 5.7.3.2 Syndepositional Silicification 5.7.3.3 Pervasive Silicification 5.7.3.4 Chert Formation and Element Remobilization 5.8 How Was the Earth’s Atmosphere Oxidized 5.8.1 Archean Atmosphere 5.8.2 Microbial Consumption and Production of H[sub(2)] and CH[sub(4)] 5.8.3 Hydrogen Escape 5.8.4 Archean Ocean Temperature and pH 5.8.4.1 Temperature: Hot or Temperate? 5.8.4.2 Acidic, Neutral, or Alkaline? Column: Zircon, Windows to the Hadean (4.6–4.0 Ga) References Chapter 6 Topics of the Early Precambrian Earth 2 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Photosynthesis and Its Evolution 6.2.1 Anoxygenic and Oxygenic Photosynthesis 6.2.2 Oxygenic Photosynthesis: Energetic and Physiological Perspective 6.2.3 Oxygenic Photosynthesis: Nutritional Perspective 6.3 Geochemical and Mineralogical Records of the Great Oxidation Event (GOE) and Earlier Oxygenation 6.3.1 Occurrrences of Redox- Sensitive Minerals and Related Sediments 6.3.1.1 Uraninite, Pyrite, and Siderite 6.3.1.2 Red Beds 6.3.2 Black Shales and Molybdenum 6.3.3 Paleosol, Clue to Oxygen in the Atmosphere and Implications? 6.3.3.1 Concept of Paleosol Geochemistry 6.3.3.2 Classical Controversy on Paleosol Records 6.3.3.3 Recent Controversies on Archean Oxygenic Atmosphere and Isotopic Approach to Paleosol 6.3.4 Identification of Sulfur Mass-Independent Isotopic Fractionation (S-MIF) 6.4 Sedimentary Records of Oxygenic Photosynthesis: Stromatolite and MISS Column: Oxygen is a Double-Edged Sword References Chapter 7 Biosignatures in Ancient Rocks and Related Issues 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Organic Matter 7.2.1 Kerogen and Its Isotopic Compositions 7.2.2 Hydrocarbons and Others – Archean Oils 7.3 Pyrite and Sulfur 7.4 Sedimentary Structures and Deposits 7.4.1 Microbially- Induced Sedimentary Structures 7.4.2 Stromatolites 7.4.2.1 What are Stromatolites? 7.4.2.2 Skepticisms to Archean Stromatolites 7.4.2.3 The Oldest Stromatolites? – The 3.4 Ga-old Strelley Pool Formation 7.4.2.4 The Oldest Stromatolites? – The 3.5 Ga Dresser Formation 7.5 Ichnofossils in Volcanic Rocks 7.6 Systematic Approach to Biogenicity Assessment of Cell-Like Structures 7.6.1 Geological Context 7.6.2 Syngenicity 7.6.3 Biological Context: Size and Its Range 7.6.4 Biological Context: Shape 7.6.5 Biological Context: Occurrence 7.6.6 Biological Context: Taphonomy 7.6.7 Biological Context: Chemical and Isotopic Compositions Column: Biofilm References Chapter 8 Early (Paleo- to Meso-) Archean Cellularly Preserved Biosignatures 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Isua Supracrustal Belt, Greenland (Denmark) 8.2.1 Geological Background 8.2.2 Cellularly Preserved Biosignatures 8.3 The Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt, Canada 8.3.1 Geological Background 8.3.2 Cellularly Preserved Biosignature 8.4 Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa 8.4.1 The Onverwacht Group 8.4.1.1 The Hoogenoeg Formation 8.4.1.2 The Kromberg Formation 8.4.2 The Fig Tree Group 8.4.3 The Moodies Group 8.5 Pilbara Craton, Western Australia 8.5.1 The Warrawoona Group 8.5.1.1 The Dresser Formation 8.5.1.2 The Mount Ada Basalt 8.5.1.3 The Apex Basalt 8.5.1.4 The Panorama Formation 8.5.2 The Strelley Pool Formation 8.5.3 The Sulfur Springs Group 8.5.4 The Gorge Creek Group and Others 8.5.4.1 The Farrel Quartzite 8.5.4.2 The Dixon Island Formation (Not Official) Column: Rare-Earth Elements and Significance of Shale (PAAS)-Normalization References Chapter 9 Overview of the Pilbara Microstructures 1: The Farrel Quartzite Assemblage 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Local Geology and Lithostratigraphy of the Goldsworthy Greenstone Belt 9.2.1 Local Geology 9.2.2 Overview of Lithostratigraphy 9.3 Siliciclastic Unit (The Farrel Quartzite) 9.3.1 Assignment to the Farrel Quartzite – Its Story and Remained Problem 9.3.2 Lithostratigraphy and Sedimentary Geology 9.3.3 Sources of Detrital Materials 9.3.4 Detailed Descriptions of CE2 9.3.4.1 Lithostratigraphy 9.3.4.2 Petrography of Black Chert 9.3.4.3 Rare- Earth Elements and Y Geochemistry 9.4 The Chert- BIF Unit (The Cleaverville Formation) 9.4.1 Lithostratigraphy and Petrography 9.4.2 Rare-Earth Elements and Y Geochemistry 9.5 Evolution of the Depositional Basin of the Farrel Quartzite – The Cleaverville Formation 9.5.1 Lithostratigraphic Constraints 9.5.2 Trace Element Constraints 9.5.3 Depositional Environment of the Black Chert in CE2 9.6 Fossil- Like Microstructures 9.6.1 Spheroids 9.6.1.1 Small Spheroids 9.6.1.2 Large Spheroids 9.6.2 Lenses 9.6.3 Films 9.6.4 Filaments Column: Evaporite References Chapter 10 Overview of the Pilbara Microstructures 2: The Strelley Pool Formation Assemblage 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The Panorama Greenstone Belt 10.2.1 Local Geology and Lithostratigraphy 10.2.2 Panorama Locality 1 10.2.2.1 Lithostratigraphy and Petrography 10.2.2.2 Fossil-Like Microstructures 10.2.3 Panorama Locality 2 10.2.3.1 Lithostratigraphy and Petrography 10.2.3.2 Fossil-Like Microstructures 10.2.4 Depositional Environment 10.3 The Warralong Greenstone Belt 10.3.1 Local Geology and Lithostratigraphy 10.3.2 Petrography of Gray-Black Chert 10.3.3 Depositional Environment 10.3.4 Fossil-Like Microstructures 10.4 The Goldsworthy Greenstone Belt 10.4.1 Local Geology and Lithostratigraphy 10.4.2 Lithofacies and Petrography of the Uppermost Cherty Unit 10.4.3 Depositional Environment of the Uppermost Cherty Unit 10.4.4 Fossil-Like Microstructures in the Massive Black Cherts 10.4.4.1 Spheroids 10.4.4.2 Lenses 10.4.4.3 Filaments and Films 10.4.5 Minor Occurrences of Fossil-Like Microstructures Column: Siliceous Sinter References Chapter 11 Biogenicity of the Pilbara Microstructures 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Geologic Context 1: Ages of Rocks 11.2.1 The Farrel Quartzite 11.2.2 The Strelley Pool Formation 11.3 Geologic Context 2: Sedimentary Origin of Host Cherts 11.4 Geologic Context 3: Primary Origin of Host Cherts 11.5 Syngenicity 11.6 Biogenicity 11.6.1 Films 11.6.2 Filaments 11.6.3 Small Spheroids 11.6.4 Large Spheroids 11.6.4.1 Flexible- Walled Large Spheroids 11.6.4.2 Robust and Thick- Walled Large Spherical Spheroid 11.6.4.3 Robust- Walled Large Oblate Spheroids 11.6.4.4 Robust and Thin- Walled Large Spherical Spheroids: The FQ Assemblage 11.6.4.5 Robust and Thin- Walled Large Spherical Spheroids: The SPF Assemblage 11.6.5 Lenses 11.7 Refuting Objections 11.7.1 Are Lenticular Microstructures Volcanic Vesicles or Those Microbially Colonized? 11.7.1.1 Descriptions of Wacey’s Volcanic Vesicles Mimicking Microfossils 11.7.1.2 Lenticular Microfossils Are Not Originated from Volcanic Vesicles 11.7.1.3 Dresser Vesicles May Be Lenticular Microfossils 11.7.2 Does the Farrel Quartzite Microfossil Assemblage Represent Soil Communities? 11.7.2.1 Ambiguity of the Examined Locality 11.7.2.2 Ambiguity of the Examined Materials 11.7.2.3 Misunderstanding of Previous Studies and Incorrect Citations Column: Acritarchs References Chapter 12 Lifecycle and Mode of Life of the Pilbara Microfossils 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Reproduction Styles, Life Cycle, and Colony of Modern Microbes 12.2.1 Alternative Reproduction Styles to Binary Fissions 12.2.2 Morphological Change of Cells 12.2.3 Morphology of Colonies 12.3 Films 12.4 Filaments 12.5 Small Spheroids 12.6 Large Spheroids 12.6.1 Flexible-Walled Large Spheroids 12.6.2 Robust and Thin-Walled Large Spherical Spheroids and Robust-walled Large Oblate Spheroid 12.7 Lenses 12.7.1 Variations in Morphology, Texture, and Colony 12.7.1.1 Area, Oblateness, and Flange Width 12.7.1.2 Symmetricity vs. Asymmetricity and Distortion 12.7.1.3 Flange Fabrics 12.7.1.4 Architectures of Colony 12.7.2 Lifecycle and Reproduction Styles of Lenticular Microbes 12.7.2.1 Simple Life Cycle with Binary Fission 12.7.2.2 Multiple Fission with Baeocyte Formation 12.7.2.3 Possible Asymmetric Division 12.7.3 Morphometrics of Lenticular Microfossils 12.7.3.1 Methodology 12.7.3.2 Results of Morphometric Analyses 12.7.3.3 Morphological Variations – Cell Growth and Taphonomy? 12.7.3.4 Environmental Adaptation and Speciation of Lenticular Microbes 12.7.4 Planktonic Mode of Life of Lenticular Microbes 12.7.4.1 Methodology 12.7.4.2 Parameters of Virtual Cells 12.7.4.3 Sedimentation Simulation 12.7.4.4 Effect of Flange and Flange Thickness 12.7.4.5 Effect of Oblateness 12.7.4.6 Summary Column: Thiomargarita and Big Bacteria References Chapter 13 Facts and Problems of the Pilbara Microfossils and Related Issues 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Cyanobacterial Microfossils in the Early Precambrian 13.2.1 Records of Described Possible Cyanobacterial Microfossils 13.2.2 Criteria for Cyanobacterial Microfossils 13.3 Eukaryotic Fossils in the Early Precambrian 13.3.1 Records of Eukaryotic Microfossils 13.3.2 Criteria for Eukaryotic Microfossils 13.3.3 Records of Eukaryotic Macrofossils 13.4 Interpretation of the Pilbara Microfossil Assemblages 13.4.1 Biological Affinity of Spheroid Microfossils 13.4.2 Biological Affinity and Survival Strategy of Lenticular Microbes 13.4.2.1 Possibility of Eukaryotic Affinities 13.4.2.2 Survival Strategy and Evolutionary Ecology of Lenticular Microbes 13.5 Future Directions of the Pilbara Microfossils 13.5.1 Reexamination of Vertically to Subvertically Oriented Columnar Giant Crystals 13.5.2 Potential of Biomarker Analyses of Microfossils 13.5.3 Taxonomy of the Lenticular Microfossils and Life History of Lenticular Microbes Column: Endosymbiotic Theory References Index