Photoelectrochemical Generation of Fuels

Description

Photoelectrochemical processes due to the symbiosis of photochemical and electrochemical processes result in unique reaction pathways and products. This technique catalysed by nanomaterials is extensively used to harness sunlight for production of fuels and chemical feedstocks. This book explains the basic concepts of photoelectrochemistry as well as their application in the generation of solar fuels from water, CO2 and N2 as feedstocks. It also contains standard methodologies and benchmarks of fuel production including current state of the art in nanocatalysts as well as their mechanism of action. This book Explores fundamentals and real-time applications of photoelectrochemistry in fuel generation Reviews basic theory and best-known catalysts and best conditions/processes for fuel generation in each of the chapters Covers standard methodologies, processes, and limitations for large-scale applications Focusses on sustainable production of fuels from renewable energy and resources This book aims at graduate students/researchers in chemical, energy and materials engineering. Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents Editors Contributors Preface Acknowledgements Chapter 1 Introduction to Photoelectrochemical Generation of Fuels References Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Semiconductor Photoelectrochemistry 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Historical Overview 2.3 Scope of Photoelectrochemistry 2.4 Systems to Harvest Solar Energy 2.4.1 PEC Cell for Electricity Production 2.4.1.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell 2.4.1.2 PV System 2.4.2 PEC Cell for Water Splitting 2.4.2.1 PEC System 2.4.2.2 Photocatalytic System 2.5 Basic Concepts of Photoelectrochemistry 2.5.1 General Concept of Semiconductor Chemistry 2.5.1.1 Physics of Semiconductor 2.5.1.2 Electrode Potential 2.5.1.3 Spectra of Photon Flux and Bandgap 2.5.1.4 Band Position and Redox Reactions 2.5.1.5 Trapping of Charge Carrier 2.5.1.6 Quantum Size Effect 2.5.1.7 Limitation of Power Conversion 2.5.2 Conventional Semiconductors and Selection of Photoelectrodes 2.5.3 Key Features of Photoelectrode 2.5.3.1 Band Bending and Schottky Barrier Formation 2.5.3.2 Semiconductor–Redox Electrolyte Junction under Illumination 2.5.3.3 Stability of the Semiconductor in Electrolyte 2.5.4 Process Involved in Photoelectrochemistry 2.5.4.1 Photon Absorption 2.5.4.2 Generation of Charge Carriers 2.5.4.3 Charge-carrier Separation and Transport 2.5.4.4 Interface Reaction 2.5.4.5 Mechanism of the PEC Reaction 2.5.5 Configuration of PEC Cell 2.5.5.1 Single Photo Absorber Electrode 2.5.5.2 PEC Tandem Cell 2.5.6 The Efficiency of the PEC System 2.5.6.1 Solar to Hydrogen (STH) Conversion Efficiency 2.5.6.2 Absorbed Photon-to-Current Efficiency (APCE) 2.5.6.3 Applied Bias Photon-to-Current Efficiency (ABPE) 2.5.6.4 Incident Photon-to-Current Efficiency (IPCE) 2.5.7 Strategies to Enhance the Performance of PEC 2.5.7.1 Single Photoelectrode 2.5.7.2 Heterojunctioned Electrode 2.6 Conclusions Acknowledgment References Chapter 3 Methodologies and Advanced Characterizations of Photoelectrochemical Processes 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Photoelectrochemical Cell Design and System Configuration 3.2.1 Photoelectrochemical Cell Construction 3.2.2 Control Unit 3.2.3 Electrode Configurations 3.2.4 Electrodes 3.2.4.1 Working Electrode 3.2.4.2 Counter Electrode 3.2.4.3 Reference Electrode 3.3 Photoelectrochemical Measurement Techniques 3.3.1 Voltammetry 3.3.1.1 Linear Sweep Voltammetry 3.3.1.2 Cyclic Voltammetry 3.3.2 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy 3.3.3 Photocurrent Action Spectra 3.4 Surface and Interface Analysis Methods 3.4.1 In-situ and Ex-situ Characterization Techniques 3.4.1.1 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 3.4.1.2 Scanning Probe Microscopy 3.4.1.3 Raman and FTIR Spectroscopy 3.4.2 Operando Characterization Techniques 3.4.2.1 Gas Chromatography 3.5 Applications of PEC Devices 3.5.1 Water Electrolysis 3.5.2 Carbon Dioxide Reduction 3.5.3 Sensing 3.5.3.1 Chemical Sensors 3.5.3.2 Biological Sensors 3.6 Conclusions References Chapter 4 Solar Water-Splitting 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Water Splitting by the Oxygen-Evolving Complex in Photosystem 4.3 Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Water-Splitting 4.4 Role of Photosensitizer in Solar Water Splitting 4.5 Molecular Catalysts for Photocatalytic Water-Splitting 4.6 Transition Metal Cluster of Polyoxometalate Anions 4.7 Metal Oxide Nanostructures 4.7.1 Natural Oxides 4.7.1.1 Cobalt-Oxide 4.7.1.2 Iron-Oxide 4.7.1.3 Ruthenium-Oxide 4.7.1.4 Nickel-Oxide 4.7.1.5 Titania 4.7.1.6 Zinc-Oxide 4.7.1.7 Copper-Oxide 4.7.1.8 BiVO[sub(4)] 4.7.2 Spinel Nanostructure 4.7.3 Perovskite Materials 4.8 Metal Sulfides 4.9 Metal-Organic Frameworks 4.10 Carbon Nitride 4.11 Conclusion and Outlook References Chapter 5 Photoelectrocatalytic Carbon Dioxide Reduction to Value-Added Products 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Need for CO[sub(2)] Reduction 5.1.2 Kinetic and Thermodynamic Aspects of CO[sub(2)] Reduction 5.1.3 Various Methods of CO[sub(2)] Reduction 5.1.3.1 Chemical Method of CO[sub(2)] Reduction 5.1.3.2 Thermochemical Method of CO[sub(2)] Reduction 5.1.3.3 Photochemical Method of CO[sub(2)] Reduction 5.1.3.4 Electrochemical Reduction of CO[sub(2)] 5.1.3.5 Photoelectrochemical Reduction of CO[sub(2)] 5.1.4 Basics of Semiconductors 5.1.4.1 Fermi Energy Level 5.1.4.2 Concept of Band Bending 5.1.4.3 Band Positions for Semiconductors 5.1.5 Challenges in CO[sub(2)] Reduction 5.1.5.1 Stable Structure of CO[sub(2)] 5.1.5.2 Selectivity 5.1.5.3 Efficiency of the Reaction 5.1.5.4 Deactivation of Catalyst 5.1.5.5 Cell Setup for CO[sub(2)] RR 5.2 Mechanism of CO[sub(2)] Reduction 5.3 Parameters of Evaluation for PEC CO[sub(2)] Reduction 5.3.1 Faradaic Efficiency 5.3.2 Stability of Catalyst 5.3.3 Quantum Yield (Q.E.) 5.3.4 Current Density 5.3.5 Solar to Fuel Efficiency (SFE) 5.3.6 Apparent Quantum Efficiency or External Quantum Efficiency 5.3.7 Turn Over Number (TON) and Turnover Frequency 5.3.8 Tafel Slope 5.3.9 Onset Potential 5.3.10 Mass Transport Limitations 5.4 Types of PEC Configurations 5.4.1 Photocathode-Based PEC System (Photocathode + Dark Anode) 5.4.2 Photoanode-Based PEC System (Photoanode + Dark Cathode) 5.4.3 Photoanode + Photocathode-Based PEC System 5.5 Modifications Employed to Make PEC CO[sub(2)] Reduction More Efficient 5.5.1 Co-Catalysts 5.5.2 Doping 5.5.3 Forming Heterojunctions 5.5.4 Cell Design 5.5.4.1 H-Type Cell 5.5.4.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Flow Cell 5.5.4.3 Microfluidic Flow Cell 5.5.4.4 Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell 5.5.4.5 Differential Electrochemical Mass Spectrometry Cell 5.5.5 Effect of Solvent/Electrolyte 5.6 Summary and Future Perspectives References Chapter 6 Photoelectrochemical Ammonia Production 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Fundamental Details of NRR 6.3 PEC Setup for Ammonia Synthesis 6.3.1 Single Chamber Cell 6.3.2 Double Chamber Cell 6.4 Classification of Catalyst for PEC NRR 6.5 Quantification of Ammonia 6.5.1 Nessler’s Reagent 6.5.2 Indophenol 6.5.3 Ion Chromatography 6.5.4 Ion Selective Electrodes 6.6 Conclusion, Challenges, and Future Aspects References Index