Handbook of environmental engineering assessment : strategy, planning, and management

Description

0i_Front-matter......Page 1 Handbook of Environmental Degradation of Materials......Page 3 Dedication......Page 4 Copyright page......Page 5 Preface to the Second Edition......Page 6 Preface to the First Edition......Page 8 1.2 Classification of Failures......Page 13 1.2.4 Environmentally Induced Failures......Page 14 1.3.1 SITE Visit......Page 15 1.4 Case Histories of Environmental-Related Failures......Page 16 1.4.1 Failure of A Natural Gas Feed Preheater in a Fertilizer Plant......Page 17 1.4.2 Failure of a Reformer Tube in a Fertilizer Plant......Page 21 1.4.3 Failure of a Furnace Tube in a Petrochemical Plant......Page 27 1.4.4 Failure of Plate Elements in a Plate Type Heat Exchanger in a Sulfuric Acid Plant......Page 30 1.4.5 Failure of Tubes in an Alcohol Superheater in a Petrochemical Plant......Page 33 1.4.6 Failure of Package Boiler Tubes in an Alcohol Distillery......Page 38 1.5 Conclusions......Page 41 References......Page 42 2.1 Introduction......Page 43 2.2 Immersion Tests......Page 46 2.2.1 Corrosion Testing......Page 47 2.2.2 Environmentally Assisted Cracking......Page 51 2.2.3 Other Tests and Factors......Page 55 2.3 Cabinet Tests......Page 57 2.4 Electrochemical Tests......Page 60 2.5 Conclusions......Page 70 References......Page 71 3.1 Introduction......Page 73 3.2 Master Curves......Page 74 3.3 Chemical Kinetics......Page 80 3.4 Thermal Decomposition Experiments......Page 84 3.5 Mechanical Experiments......Page 87 3.6 Miscellaneous Experimentation......Page 89 3.7 Summary......Page 91 References......Page 92 4.1 Introduction......Page 94 4.2.1 Electrochemical Reactions, the Electrochemical Cell, and the Gibb’s Free-Energy Change......Page 95 4.2.2 The Generalized Cell Reaction......Page 98 4.2.3 The Nernst Equation: Effect of Concentration on Equilibrium Half-Cell Potential......Page 101 4.2.4.1 Example 1......Page 104 4.2.4.2 Example 2......Page 105 4.2.5 Graphical Representation of Electrochemical Equilibrium: Pourbaix Diagrams......Page 106 4.3.1 The Elementary Electrochemical Corrosion Circuit......Page 113 4.3.3 Faraday’s Law......Page 117 4.4 Experimental Polarization Curves......Page 120 4.5 Examples of Electrochemical Corrosion Measurements and Characterizations......Page 124 4.5.1 Tafel Extrapolation......Page 126 4.5.2 Polarization Resistance......Page 127 4.5.3 Cyclic-Anodic-Polarization Behavior Relative to Localized Corrosion......Page 129 4.6 Summary......Page 131 References......Page 132 5.1 Introduction......Page 133 5.2 Criteria of Metal Oxidation......Page 134 5.3 Kinetics of Oxidation......Page 135 5.3.2 Parabolic Oxidation......Page 137 5.3.3 Linear Equation......Page 138 5.5 Measurement of Oxidation Kinetics......Page 139 5.6 Identification and Characterization of Scales......Page 140 5.6.1 Role of Defect Structure and Diffusion in Oxide Scales......Page 142 Example......Page 143 5.8 Marker Technique......Page 144 5.9 Oxygen Tracer Technique......Page 145 5.10 Initial Oxidation or Thin Layer Oxidation......Page 146 5.10.1 Mott Theory of Direct Logarithmic Law......Page 150 5.10.2 Thick Layer Oxidation–Wagner’s Theory......Page 151 5.11 Oxidation of Pure Metals......Page 152 5.12 Oxidation of Alloys......Page 157 5.13.1 Effect of Chromium Addition......Page 158 5.13.2 Effect of Nickel Addition......Page 160 5.13.4 Effect of Silicon......Page 162 5.13.5 Oxidation of Multi-Component Alloys......Page 163 5.14.1 Carbon Steels and Low-Alloy Ferritic Steels......Page 165 5.14.3 Nickel-Based Alloys and Superalloy Oxidation......Page 166 5.15.1 Importance of Mixed Gas Environments......Page 172 5.15.2 Oxidation versus Sulfidation......Page 173 5.15.3 Sulfidation of Fe-Cr, Ni-Cr, and Co-Cr Alloys......Page 175 5.16 Phase Stability Diagrams......Page 176 5.17 Scaling of Alloys in SO2 Containing Atmospheres......Page 179 5.18 Oxidation of Fe-Cr-Al and Ni-Cr-Al Alloys in SO2 and O2 Environments......Page 184 5.19 Hot Corrosion......Page 185 Type II......Page 186 5.19.2 How Hot Corrosion Affects the Corrosion Rate......Page 188 5.19.3 Testing Methods for Hot Corrosion......Page 189 5.20 Oxide Spallation......Page 190 5.22 Stresses Developed During Thermal Cycling Conditions......Page 193 5.23.1 Metal Dusting......Page 195 5.23.2 Inhibition by Sulfur......Page 197 5.23.3 Coal-Based Power Plants......Page 198 5.23.7 Gas Phase Corrosion......Page 199 References......Page 200 6.2 Chemical Aging......Page 201 6.3 Environmental Stress Cracking......Page 202 6.4 Physical Aging......Page 203 6.5 Summary......Page 215 References......Page 216 7.1 Introduction......Page 218 7.2 General Aspects......Page 219 7.2.2.1 Macromolecular Structure......Page 220 7.2.3.1 Initiation Step......Page 222 7.2.4 Kinetic Studies......Page 223 7.3.1.1 PE......Page 224 7.3.1.2 PP......Page 225 7.3.1.4 PS......Page 226 7.3.1.6 PMMA......Page 227 7.3.2.2 Nylon......Page 228 7.3.2.3 PC......Page 229 7.3.3.2 Biodegradable Polymers......Page 230 7.3.3.3 Conducting Polymers......Page 232 7.3.3.4 Water-Soluble Polymers......Page 233 7.3.4 Elastomers......Page 234 7.3.5 Thermoplastic Elastomers......Page 235 7.4.1 General Aspects......Page 236 7.4.2.1 Glass Fiber-Based Polymer Composites......Page 237 7.4.2.2 Carbon Fiber-Based Polymer Composites......Page 238 Carbon Black-Filled Polymer Composites......Page 239 Graphene-Based Composites......Page 240 7.6 Thermal Degradation of Waste Polymers......Page 241 7.7 Concluding Remarks......Page 242 References......Page 243 8.1 Introduction......Page 248 8.2.1 Formation of Biofilms......Page 249 8.3.1 Lectins as Chemical Cues......Page 251 8.3.2.1 Biofilms as Settlement Cues......Page 252 8.3.2.2 Biofilms As Settlement Inhibitors......Page 253 8.3.2.3 Chemical Repellents......Page 254 8.4.1 Microbial Community of the Mussels......Page 255 8.5 Corrosion of Metals......Page 257 8.5.1.1 Aerobic Microorganisms......Page 258 8.5.2.1 Aerobic Conditions......Page 259 8.5.2.2 Anaerobic Conditions......Page 260 8.5.2.3 Alternation Between Aerobic and Anaerobic Conditions......Page 262 8.5.2.4 Other Processes Contributing to Corrosion......Page 263 8.5.2.6 Non-Ferrous Metals......Page 264 8.6 Biodeterioration of Polymeric Materials......Page 265 8.6.1 Electronic Insulating Materials......Page 266 8.6.2 Packaging Polyethylenes......Page 267 8.6.3 Structural Polymeric Composites......Page 268 8.6.5 Plasticizers......Page 269 References......Page 271 9.1 Introduction......Page 288 9.2 Thermal Degradation of Materials......Page 289 9.3.1 Ignition......Page 290 9.3.2 Surface Spread of Flame......Page 291 9.4.1 Testing for Compliance with Fire Safety Codes and Regulations......Page 292 9.4.1.1 Noncombustible and Limited Combustible Materials......Page 293 9.4.1.2 Small-Flame Ignition Tests......Page 294 9.4.1.3 Surface Finishes and Contents......Page 295 9.4.1.4 Smoke and Toxicity......Page 298 9.4.2 Testing for Research and Product Development......Page 299 9.5 Methods to Improve Material Flammability......Page 302 9.5.2.3 Inorganic Hydroxides......Page 303 9.6.1.2 Piloted Ignition of Materials Exposed to a Radiant Heat Source......Page 304 9.6.2 Flame-Spread Propensity......Page 305 9.6.3 Heat Release Rate......Page 306 9.6.5 Application of the Heat Release Rate Properties and Yield Data......Page 308 References......Page 310 Chapter Outline......Page 313 10.1 Introduction—What Is an FR?......Page 314 10.2 Fire Statistics—Why Do We Use FRs?......Page 315 10.3 FR Applications—Where Are FRs Used?......Page 316 10.4 Flammability Standards and Test Methods—How Is FR Effectiveness Measured?......Page 317 10.8 Vertical Tray Cable Test (IEEE 383)......Page 318 10.10 FR Standards Issuing Organizations—Where Do All These Tests Come From?......Page 319 10.11 Market Drivers—What Else Should Be Known Before Formulating an FR Product?......Page 320 10.13 FRs—What Compounds Are Used?......Page 321 10.14 FR101—What Are the Major FR Technologies and How Do They Work?......Page 322 10.15 The Three Major FR Technologies......Page 323 10.16 Halogen FRs—Selected Products......Page 325 10.17 Halogen FR Synergists......Page 328 10.19 Metal Hydrate FRs......Page 329 10.20 Phosphorus FRs......Page 330 10.21 Other FRs......Page 332 10.22 Smoke Suppressants......Page 333 10.23 Nanotechnology and Flame Retardance......Page 334 10.24 Conclusion......Page 337 References......Page 338 11.1 Introduction......Page 340 11.2 Concrete Properties Affecting Chloride Ingress and Threshold Values......Page 342 11.3 Corrosion Mechanisms of Steel in Concrete......Page 343 11.4 Mechanisms of Corrosion Protection Systems......Page 346 11.5.2 Sealers and Membranes......Page 347 11.6 Corrosion Inhibitors......Page 348 11.9 Cathodic Protection......Page 350 11.11.1 Chloride Diffusion Coefficient......Page 351 11.11.2 Cost Analysis......Page 352 11.11.3 Example of Life-Cycle Cost Analysis for a Bridge Deck......Page 353 References......Page 355 12.2 Corrosion Fundamentals......Page 360 12.2.1 Protection Potential, Eprot......Page 362 12.3 Galvanic Cathodic Protection Systems......Page 363 12.3.1 Kinetics of Galvanic Systems......Page 365 12.3.2 Resistance Calculations......Page 368 12.3.3 Resistance Calculation Procedure......Page 370 12.3.4 Comparison of Magnesium and Zinc Anodes......Page 371 12.3.5 Design Procedure for a Galvanic CP System......Page 372 12.4 Impressed Cathodic Protection Systems......Page 373 12.4.1.3 Chromium-Bearing High Silicon Cast Iron......Page 374 12.5 Ground Bed Spacing......Page 375 12.5.1 Determination of the Number of Ground beds......Page 377 12.5.2 Current Requirements for Impressed Systems......Page 378 12.5.3 Cathodic Protection of Internal Surfaces......Page 379 12.5.4 Stray Current Corrosion......Page 380 References......Page 381 13.1 Introduction......Page 382 13.2 General Concepts......Page 383 13.3 T&FFS Materials......Page 384 13.4 Exposure Process......Page 387 13.5 Testing Standards and Protection Assessment......Page 389 13.5.1 Vertical Flammability Test......Page 390 13.5.2 Thermal Protective Performance System......Page 391 13.5.3 The Radiant Protective Performance and Stored Energy System......Page 392 13.5.4 Instrumented Manikin Tests for Flash Fires System......Page 394 13.6.1 TPP Sensor......Page 396 13.6.2 Pyrocal Sensor......Page 397 13.6.3 Embedded Thermocouple Sensor......Page 398 13.6.4 Additional Sensor Types and Their Limitations......Page 399 13.7.1 Simple Approach......Page 400 13.7.3 Henriques Damage Integral......Page 401 13.7.4 Pennes Model......Page 402 13.8 Other Modeling Components......Page 403 References......Page 406 14.1 Introduction......Page 408 14.2.2 Strong Acids......Page 409 14.3 Biotic Agents......Page 410 14.4.1 Bacteria......Page 412 14.4.2.1 Mold Fungi......Page 413 14.4.2.3 Brown and White Rot Fungi......Page 414 14.4.2.4 Soft Rot Fungi......Page 415 14.5.1 Termites (Isoptera)......Page 416 14.5.2 Beetles (Coleoptera)......Page 417 14.5.3 Ants and Bees (Hymenoptera)......Page 418 14.6.3 Limnoria......Page 419 14.8.1 Limiting Oxygen......Page 420 14.8.2 Limiting Temperature......Page 421 14.8.4.1 Natural Durability......Page 422 14.9.1 Brushing......Page 424 14.9.3 Two-Stage Dip Diffusion......Page 425 14.9.6 Pressure Treatment Processes......Page 426 14.9.6.2 Pressure Processes......Page 427 14.10 Treatment Standards......Page 429 14.11.2 Supercritical Fluid Treatments......Page 430 14.13 Preservatives......Page 431 14.13.1.3 Copper Naphthenate......Page 432 14.13.2.1 Chromated Copper Arsenate......Page 433 14.13.2.3 Acid Copper Chrome......Page 434 14.13.2.7 Boron/Fluoride......Page 435 14.13.4 Wood Modification......Page 436 14.14 Remedial Treatments......Page 437 14.15 Nonbiocidal Barriers......Page 438 References......Page 439 15.1 Introduction......Page 441 15.2.1.1 Aqueous......Page 442 15.2.1.2 Microbially Influenced Corrosion......Page 444 15.2.2 Tribological Damage......Page 445 15.2.4 Damage by Radioactivity......Page 447 15.3 Sensing of Degradation Effects on Surface Chemistry......Page 448 15.3.1 Synchrotron-Based Techniques......Page 453 15.4.1 Chromate Conversion Coatings......Page 454 15.4.1.1 Interaction of Chromates with Aluminum......Page 455 15.4.3 Composite Paint Coatings......Page 457 15.4.5 Thermal Spray Methods......Page 460 15.4.6 Ion Beam Treatment of Surfaces and Ion Beam Assisted Deposition......Page 461 15.4.7 Chemical Vapor Deposition and Physical Vapor Deposition......Page 462 15.4.8 Pulsed Laser Deposition......Page 463 15.4.9 Surface Plasma Treatment......Page 464 15.4.10 Functionalized Nanostructured Coatings Development......Page 465 15.5 The Role of Computer Modeling......Page 469 15.6 Summary......Page 470 References......Page 471 16.1 Current Uses of Engineered Nanomaterials......Page 479 16.2 Environmental Degradation of Metallic and Ceramic Nanoparticles......Page 480 16.3 Environmental Degradation of Carbon Nanotubes......Page 485 16.5 Environmental Degradation of Nanostructured Surfaces......Page 487 16.6 Environmental Degradation of Nanocomposites......Page 488 16.7 Impact on Health and Environment......Page 491 16.8 Impact of Consideration of Environmental Transformation on Design and Use of Engineered Nanomaterials: Guidelines......Page 493 References......Page 495 17.1 Introduction......Page 500 17.2 Selecting the Alloy......Page 501 17.3 Coating System Engineering......Page 502 17.4.1 Cleaning......Page 505 17.4.2 Chemical Etch......Page 506 17.4.3 De-Smut/Deoxidation/Pickle......Page 507 17.4.4 Rinsing......Page 510 17.4.5 Summary of Substrate and Cleaning Considerations......Page 511 17.4.6 Residual Surface Contamination......Page 512 17.5.1 Hard Anodizing......Page 515 17.5.2 Chromate-Based Conversion Coating......Page 518 17.5.3 Cerium- and Rare Earth-Based Conversion Coatings......Page 522 17.5.4 Reprise: Consideration of Alloy Quality in Conversion Coating......Page 524 17.6 Primers......Page 525 17.7 Topcoating......Page 529 17.9 Summary......Page 530 References......Page 531 18.1 Scope......Page 536 18.2.2 Barrier Protection......Page 537 18.2.3 Anodic Protection and Active Corrosion Protection......Page 539 18.2.4 Cathodic Protection......Page 540 18.2.5 Zinc-rich Paints (ZRPs)......Page 541 18.2.6 Role of Adhesion......Page 542 18.3.2 Aluminum......Page 543 18.4.2 Corrosion Inhibiting Pigments......Page 544 18.4.3 Alkyd, Modified Alkyd, and Polyester Resins......Page 545 18.4.4 Epoxy Resins......Page 546 18.4.5 Vinyls......Page 547 18.4.7 Polyurethanes......Page 548 18.4.9 Phenolic Resins......Page 549 18.5.2 Defects......Page 550 18.6.1 Light......Page 551 18.7.1 Blistering......Page 552 18.7.2 Filiform Corrosion......Page 553 18.8.2 Accelerated Exposure Testing......Page 555 18.8.4 Electrochemical......Page 557 18.9.1 Paints for Marine Service......Page 558 18.9.2 Paints for Automotive Service......Page 559 18.9.4 Paints for Aircraft......Page 560 18.9.5 Coatings for Buried Pipelines......Page 561 18.10.3 Chromates......Page 562 References......Page 563 19.1 Introduction......Page 566 19.2 Thermal Spray Basics and Processes......Page 567 19.2.1 High Velocity Oxy-Fuel Processes......Page 568 19.2.3 Low Velocity Combustion......Page 570 19.2.4 Twin Wire Arc Process......Page 571 19.2.6 Low Pressure Plasma Spraying (LPPs)......Page 572 19.3 Materials Consumables......Page 573 19.3.6 Polymers......Page 575 19.4.3 Chemical and Mechanical Cladding......Page 576 19.4.6 Gas/Water Atomization......Page 577 19.5.1 Turbine Applications......Page 578 19.5.1.1 Clearance Control Coatings......Page 580 19.5.1.2 Heat Insulation......Page 581 19.5.1.4 Hot Corrosion Resistance......Page 582 19.5.2 Coated Turbine Components......Page 583 19.6.1.1 Anodic Coatings......Page 584 19.6.2 Salvage and Repair......Page 585 19.6.3.1 Erosive Wear......Page 586 19.6.3.3 Adhesive/Sliding Wear......Page 588 19.6.3.4 Abrasive Wear......Page 590 19.7.2 Traction......Page 591 19.9 Summary......Page 592 References......Page 593 20.2 Degradation Processes......Page 594 20.2.1 UV Radiation......Page 595 20.2.2 Water......Page 596 20.2.3 Temperature......Page 597 20.3 Outdoor Exposure......Page 598 20.3.1 Climate......Page 599 20.3.2 Exposure Conditions......Page 600 20.3.3 Accelerated Outdoor Exposure......Page 601 20.4 Artificial Accelerated Weathering Tests......Page 603 20.4.1 Spectral Power Distribution......Page 604 20.4.2 Fluorescent Light Sources......Page 605 20.4.3 Carbon Arc Light Sources......Page 606 20.4.4 Xenon Arc Light Sources......Page 607 20.4.5 Experimental Weathering Devices......Page 609 20.5 Test Cycles......Page 610 20.6 Postexposure Testing......Page 612 20.6.1 Appearance Testing......Page 613 20.7.1 Chemical Metrics of Weatherability......Page 614 References......Page 615 21.1 Introduction......Page 617 21.3.1.1 Dry Test......Page 619 21.3.2.1 CIGMAT CT-2 (Modified ASTM D 4541)......Page 622 21.3.2.2 CIGMAT CT-3 (Modified ASTM C 321)......Page 623 21.3.3 Pinhole Test—Chemical Resistance (CIGMAT CT-1, Modified ASTM G 20)......Page 627 21.3.3.1 Failure Criteria......Page 630 21.3.3.2 Coated Concrete Failure Types......Page 631 21.4 Modeling Liquid Transport into Coated Concrete......Page 636 21.4.1 Physical Model......Page 637 21.4.1.3 Assumptions in Developing the Models......Page 638 21.4.2 Film Model (Model 1)......Page 639 21.4.3.1 Nonreactive Solution (Model 2)......Page 641 21.4.3.2 Reactive Solution (Model 3)......Page 643 21.4.3.3 Effect of Holiday Sizes......Page 644 21.4.4.1 Film Model (Model 1)......Page 645 21.4.4.2 Bulk Models (Model 2 and Model 3)......Page 646 Acknowledgment......Page 648 References......Page 649 22.1 Introduction......Page 650 22.2 Types of Coating Defects......Page 651 22.3 Electrochemical Methods for the Local Characterization of Coatings......Page 653 22.4.1 LEIM and LEIS Methodology......Page 654 22.4.2.1 Applications to Sources of Manufacturing Defects......Page 655 22.4.2.2 Different Types of Failure Sites are Observed......Page 656 22.4.2.3 Different Regions of Activity within a Single Defect......Page 659 22.4.2.4 Confirmation of a Growth/Death Cycle......Page 660 22.4.2.5 Origins of Ionic Ingress through the Coating......Page 662 22.5 The Use of Molecular Probes......Page 663 References......Page 666 23.1 Introduction......Page 668 23.2 Degradation Chemistry......Page 669 23.2.1 Thermal Degradation......Page 670 23.2.2 Thermo-Oxidative Degradation......Page 671 23.2.3 Photolysis......Page 672 23.3 Stabilizers......Page 673 23.3.1 Primary Antioxidants (Commercial Examples: See Appendix 1)......Page 674 23.3.2 Secondary Antioxidants (Commercial Examples: See Appendix 1)......Page 677 23.3.3 HA(L)S (Commercial Examples: See Appendix 1)......Page 680 23.3.4 UVAs (Commercial Examples: See Appendix 1)......Page 681 23.4.1 Processing Stability......Page 683 23.4.2 Long-Term Heat Stability......Page 685 23.4.3 UV Stability......Page 686 23.5.1 Physical Factors......Page 687 23.5.2 Interactions with Other Additives......Page 688 23.5.6 Indirect Food Contact Approval......Page 689 References......Page 696 24.1 Introduction......Page 710 24.2.1 Environment Description......Page 712 24.2.2 Interaction with Materials......Page 716 24.2.3 Mitigation Techniques......Page 725 24.3.2 Contamination Effects on Spacecraft Surfaces......Page 728 24.3.2.2 Photochemical Deposition of Contaminants......Page 729 24.3.3 Mitigation of Contamination Effects......Page 730 24.4.1.1 Environment Description......Page 731 24.4.1.2 Effects on Materials......Page 733 24.4.1.2.1 Effects on Fluoropolymers......Page 735 24.4.1.2.4 Effects on White Paint Coatings......Page 736 24.4.2.1 Solar Flare X-ray Radiation Environment......Page 737 24.4.2.3.1 Polymers......Page 739 24.4.2.3.2 White Paint Thermal Control Coatings......Page 742 24.5.1 Environment Description......Page 743 24.5.2.1 Effects on Composites......Page 744 24.5.2.3 Synergistic Thermal, Thermal Cycling and Radiation Effects on Uncoated and Coated Teflon® FEP......Page 745 24.6.1 Environment Description......Page 751 24.6.2 Interactions with Materials......Page 752 24.6.3 Mitigation Techniques......Page 753 24.7 Concluding Remarks......Page 755 References......Page 756 25.1.1 Principle......Page 764 25.1.2.1 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection......Page 766 25.1.2.2 Impressed Current CP......Page 768 25.2.1 Potential Criteria......Page 769 25.2.2 IR Drop Considerations......Page 770 25.3.1 Soil Resistance......Page 771 25.3.1.1 Wenner Four Pin Method......Page 772 25.3.3 Microbiological Activity and Redox Potential......Page 773 25.3.4 Coating Resistance......Page 774 25.3.5 Required Current Density......Page 775 25.4.1.1 CIPS Technique......Page 776 25.4.1.3 IR Coupons/Simulation Probes......Page 777 25.4.2 Corrosion Rate Measurements......Page 778 25.5.2 Design of Sacrificial Protection Systems......Page 779 Anode Resistance......Page 780 Total Circuit Resistance......Page 782 25.5.3.1 Current and Potential Distributions of the Protected Structure......Page 783 25.5.3.3 Anode Requirements......Page 785 25.5.3.6 Ground Bed Selection......Page 786 References......Page 787 26.1.1 An Example of a Marine Incident Caused by Corrosion......Page 792 26.1.2 Economic Considerations......Page 795 26.2.1 Double-Hull Tankers......Page 798 26.2.2 Floating Production, Storage, and Offloading (FPSO) Vessels......Page 800 26.3.1.2 Pitting Corrosion......Page 802 26.3.2 Major Corrosion Mechanisms in Different Locations......Page 803 26.3.2.1 Bottom Plating......Page 804 26.3.2.4 Special Locations......Page 805 26.3.3.3 Conductivity......Page 806 26.4.2 Corrosion Rate Studies......Page 807 26.4.3 High Corrosion Rates for Flexing Structural Members......Page 809 26.5.1 Corrosion Causes Loss of Strength of Individual Structural Members......Page 810 26.5.2 Corrosion Causes Loss of Hull Girder Strength......Page 811 26.6 Measurement and Monitoring of Corrosion Degradation......Page 812 26.7.1 Coatings......Page 813 26.7.2 Cathodic Protection......Page 814 26.8.1 Classification Societies and IACS......Page 816 26.8.4 Consideration of Corrosion in Design and Maintenance......Page 818 26.8.5 Surveys......Page 819 26.8.6 Thickness Measurement Requirements and Procedures......Page 820 References......Page 823 27.1 Introduction......Page 826 27.2.1 Polarity......Page 827 27.2.3 Liquid Crystallinity......Page 833 27.2.4 Stiff Molecules......Page 835 27.2.5 Close packing......Page 837 27.2.6 Chemical Cross-Links......Page 838 27.2.7 Fillers and Blends......Page 839 27.2.8 Orientation......Page 844 27.2.9 External Shielding and Lamination (Including UV-Protection)......Page 846 27.3.1 Introduction......Page 849 27.3.4 Effects of Oxygen......Page 850 27.3.5 Specific Requirements for Food and Material Selection......Page 852 References......Page 853 28.1 Introduction......Page 856 28.2.1 Uniform or General Corrosion......Page 857 28.2.3 Estimating Processing Equipment Service Lifetime from Corrosion Rate Data......Page 858 28.3.1 Experience and Knowledge......Page 859 28.3.2 Recognizing the Different Types of Corrosion that Can Degrade Process Equipment Performance and Equipment Service Li.........Page 860 28.3.2.1 Recognizing Chemical Processing Equipment General (Uniform) Corrosion......Page 861 28.3.2.2 Recognizing Localized Corrosion......Page 863 28.3.3 Corrosion Inhibitors......Page 870 28.4 Selecting Corrosion Resistant Materials for Chemical Processing Equipment......Page 871 28.4.4 Nickel Alloys......Page 872 28.4.7 Coatings for Preventing and Controlling Corrosion......Page 873 28.5.1 Direct Current Polarization Methods......Page 874 28.5.3 Databases for Controlling and Preventing Chemical Process Equipment Corrosion......Page 877 References......Page 878 Index......Page 880