Cryogenic Heat Management: Technology and Applications for Science and Industry

Description

Cryogenic engineering (cryogenics) is the production, preservation, and use or application of cold. This book presents a comprehensive introduction to designing systems to deal with heat – effective management of cold, exploring the directing (or redirecting), promoting, or inhibiting this flow of heat in a practical way. It provides a description of the necessary theory, design methodology, and advanced demonstrations (thermodynamics, heat transfer, thermal insulation, fluid mechanics) for many frequently occurring situations in low-temperature apparatus. This includes systems that are widely used such as superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), high-energy physics, fusion, tokamak and free electron laser systems, space launch and exploration, and energy and transportation use of liquid hydrogen, as well as potential future applications of cryo-life sciences and chemical industries. The book is written with the assumption that the reader has an undergraduate understanding of thermodynamics, heat transfer, and fluid mechanics, in addition to the mechanics of materials, material science, and physical chemistry. Cryogenic Heat Management: Technology and Applications for Science and Industry will be a valuable guide for those researching, teaching, or working with low-temperature or cryogenic systems, in addition to postgraduates studying the topic. Key features: Presents simplified but useful and practical equations that can be applied in estimating performance and design of energy-efficient systems in low-temperature systems or cryogenics Contains practical approaches and advanced design materials for insulation, shields/anchors, cryogen vessels/pipes, calorimeters, cryogenic heat switches, cryostats, current leads, and RF couplers Provides a comprehensive introduction to the necessary theory and models needed for solutions to common difficulties and illustrates the engineering examples with more than 300 figures Cover Half Title Title Copyright Brief Contents Contents Preface Authors Abbreviations / Acronyms / Nomenclature Introduction Chapter 1 Heat Transfer at Low Temperatures 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Review of Thermodynamics 1.3 Thermodynamic Cycles 1.4 The Carnot Cycle 1.5 Conduction Heat Transfer 1.6 Convection Heat Transfer 1.7 Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer 1.7 Gas Conduction 1.8 Boiling and Condensation 1.9 Application of Heat Transfer to Heat Management References Chapter 2 Thermal Insulation Materials and Systems 2.1 Introduction to Thermal Insulation 2.1.1 Three Key Questions 2.1.2 Full Range Vacuum Pressure 2.2 Types of Thermal Insulation Systems 2.3 Calculations, Testing, and Materials 2.3.1 Calculations of Heat Transmission 2.3.2 Overview of Testing of Cryogenic Insulation Systems 2.3.3 Overview of Insulation Material Data 2.3.4 Structural-Thermal Material Data 2.4 Engineered System Analysis Approach 2.4.1 Comparative Analysis of Example Systems 2.4.2 The Insulation Quality Factor in System Design 2.4.3 Methodology and Key to Success 2.5 Aerogels and Aerogel-Based Systems 2.5.1 Aerogel Materials 2.5.2 Experimental Method and Apparatus for Aerogel Testing 2.5.3 Cryogenic-Vacuum Test Results for Aerogels 2.5.4 Thermal Analysis of Aerogels (Estimating for Different Boundary Temperatures) 2.6 Bulk-Fill Insulation Materials 2.6.1 Bulk-Fill Material Test Data 2.6.2 Analysis and Discussion of Bulk-Fill Materials 2.7 Glass Bubble Thermal Insulation Systems 2.7.1 Material Testing and Thermal Performance Data 2.8 Fiberglass Insulation Systems 2.9 Foam Insulation Systems References Chapter 3 Multilayer Insulation Systems 3.1 Introduction to Multilayer Insulation Systems 3.1.1 What Is the Best MLI? 3.1.2 Advantages and Applications of MLI Systems 3.1.3 Thermal Performance Test Data 3.1.4 Vacuum-Pressure Dependency 3.2 MLI and Vacuum 3.3 MLI Materials 3.3.1 System Variation with Different Reflectors and Spacers 3.3.2 Classical Thermal Performance of MLI Systems 3.4 Calculation of MLI Thermal Performance 3.4.1 Lockheed Equations 3.4.2 Equation by McIntosh 3.4.3 Hybrid Approach by Augustynowicz 3.4.4 Empirical Equation by CERN Large Hadron Collider 3.5 Energy Saving: MLI with Intermediate Shields 3.5.1 Basic Principles and Typical Configurations 3.5.2 Demonstration of Energy Saving by Intermediate Shields 3.5.3 Design Methodology of Intermediate Shields with MLI Systems 3.6 Thermal Performance of MLI Systems 3.6.1 Description of MLI Test Specimens 3.6.2 Cryostat Test Data for Select MLI Systems 3.6.3 Supporting Cryostat Test Data for Other MLI Systems 3.7 Discussion of MLI Thermal Performance 3.7.1 General Performance Considerations 3.7.2 Detailed Performance Considerations 3.7.3 Effects of System Requirements 3.8 Effect of Number of Layers and Layer Density 3.8.1 Layer Density Estimation and Analysis 3.8.2 Practical Rules for Installation 3.9 Comparison of Data to Thermal Model 3.10 MLI Performance below 77 K 3.10.1 MLI Performance for 77 K to 4.2 K 3.10.2 MLI Performance for 65 K to 6 K 3.10.3 MLI Performance Test for 260 K–19 K 3.10.4 Other Experimental Studies down to 4 K 3.11 Challenges and Remedies in Real MLI Systems 3.11.1 Greatly Unexpected Heat Fluxes through Cracks/Slots 3.11.2 Shu’s Enhanced Black Cavity Model Theory for MLI with Cracks/Slots 3.11.3 Patch-Covering Technique for Remedy of MLI Performance 3.11.4 Engineering Remedy for MLI with Many Joins/Seams 3.11.5 MLI Configuration of Joints/Seams and Testing Results (300 K to 20 K) 3.11.6 Patch-Covering Method for 4 K Surfaces 3.12 Experimental Study of Heat Transfer Mechanisms 3.12.1 Eight Experiments for T Distributions 3.12.2 Temperature (T) Distributions 3.12.3 Calculation of Local Equivalent Thermal Conductivity 3.12.4 Local Equivalent Thermal Conductivity w/o Slots for 77 K to 4.2 K 3.13 MLI Composites, Hybrids, and Structural Attachments 3.13.1 Ideal MLI vs Practical MLI 3.13.2 Additional Considerations of MLI Systems 3.13.3 Layered Composite Insulation Systems 3.13.4 Thermal Test Results of LCI Systems 3.13.5 Application and Discussion of LCI Systems 3.14 Demonstration of Successful MLI Systems 3.14.1 MLI Systems for Space Exploration 3.14.2 MLI Systems for Space Science Missions and Payload Applications 3.14.3 MLI Systems for Superconducting Accelerators 3.14.4 MLI Systems for Fusion Projects References Chapter 4 Thermally Efficient Support: Structures for Cryogenics 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Basic Design and Mechanical Considerations 4.2.1 General Considerations 4.2.2 Mechanical Considerations 4.3 Materials 4.4 Thermal Optimization 4.4.1 Mathematical Analyses for Optimization 4.4.2 Thermal Optimization with Computing Codes 4.5 Supports for Pipes and Pipe Complexes 4.5.1 Ring Supports for Cryogenic Fluid Transfer Pipes 4.5.2 Thermal Simulation of Ring Support Designs Multi-Channel Cryogenic Pipe 4.5.3 Other Advanced Supports for Cryogenic Pipes 4.6 Supports for Cryogenic Vessels and Similar Cold Masses 4.6.1 Rod Supports for Large Tanks and Cold Masses 4.6.2 Tubular Supports for Medium and Small Vessels 4.6.3 Stack Support of Plate Disks 4.6.4 Support Rings for Cryogenic Vessels 4.6.5 Similar Supports Utilized for SC Cold Masses 4.7 Compression and Tension Post Supports 4.7.1 Reentrant Post Support 4.7.2 Single-Tube Compression Posts for Heavy SC Magnets 4.7.3 Single-Tube Tension Posts for Heavy SRF Cavities 4.8 Supports for Long Cold Masses with Very Large Warm Bores 4.8.1 Supports of Fermilab Collider Detector Facility Magnet 4.8.2 Supports for CMS and ATLAS Magnets 4.9 Contact-Free Supports with Magnetic Levitation 4.9.1 HTS Maglev Support for Cryogenic Transfer Lines and Vessels 4.9.2 HTS Maglev Support for Bearings and Flywheels References Chapter 5 Thermal Anchors and Shields 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Thermal Shields 5.2.1 Passive Thermal Shields 5.2.2 Actively Cooled Thermal Shields 5.3 Thermal Shields for Superconducting Magnets and Superconducting Radio-Frequency Cavities 5.4 Dewar Thermal Shields 5.5 Thermal Shields in Magnetic Fields 5.5.1 Thermal Shields and Anchors in Varying Magnetic Fields 5.6 Thermal Shields with Cryocoolers 5.7 Cryogenic Shields for Cold Masses below 1 K 5.8 Thermal Anchors 5.8.1 Thermal Anchors for Structural Components 5.8.2 Thermal Anchors for Cryogenic Sensors and Wires 5.8.3 Thermal Anchors for RF Instruments 5.8.4 Thermal Anchors for Current Leads and Superconductor Joints References Chapter 6 Cryogenic Transfer Pipes and Storage Vessels 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Basic Cryogenic Transfer Pipes 6.2.1 Cryogenic Pipes with Foams, Fibers, and Powders 6.2.2 Cryogenic Pipes with Aerogels and Aerogel Layered Composites 6.2.2.1 LH2 Transfer Pipes for Space Launch Facilities 6.2.2.2 Subsea-Buried LNG Pipeline Technology 6.2.3 Cryogen Pipes with Vacuum Jacketed + Multilayer Insulation 6.2.3.1 LN2 and LH2 Transfer Pipes with VJ+MLI 6.2.3.2 LHe Transfer Pipes with VJ+MLI 6.2.4 Cryogenic Transfer Pipes with Maglev Suspension 6.3 Complex Pipelines with Multiple Channels and Cryogens 6.3.1 ITER Cryogenic Pipeline System 6.3.2 LHC Cryogenic Pipeline System 6.3.3 Another Example: Complex Multichannel Pipes 6.4 Connections (Bayonets) for Cryogenic Piping 6.4.1 Traditional Bayonets 6.4.2 LH2 Bayonets for Field Joint Connections 6.4.3 Interconnections for Cryogenic Multi-Channel Piping 6.5 Thermal Tests of Cryogenic Transfer Piping 6.5.1 Boil-Off Test (Static) Method 6.5.2 Enthalpy Difference (Dynamic) Method 6.6 Regular Cryogenic Storage Vessels 6.6.1 Storage Vessels Insulated by MLI 6.6.1.1 Techniques to Minimize Cryogen Boil-Off 6.6.1.2 Integration of Regular Cryogenic Vessels 6.6.2 Storage Vessels Insulated by Powder Material 6.6.3 Other Interesting Topics 6.6.3.1 Zero Boil-Off Vessels 6.6.3.2 Qualification Test of Regular Cryogenic Vessels 6.7 Extra-Large Tanks for LO2, LN2, and LH2 6.7.1 Extra-Large Tanks with Perlite, Glass Bubbles, Aerogel 6.7.2 Extra-Large Tanks with Multilayer Insulation 6.7.3 Extra-Large Cryogenic Movable Tanks 6.8 Diagnoses and Modification of Extra-Large Tanks in the Field 6.8.1 Diagnosis, Refill, and Return to Service of a Poorly Performing LH2 Tank 6.8.2 Improvement and Modification of Ultra-Large LH2 Tank in the Field 6.9 Zero Boil-Off Ultra-Large LH2 Tanks 6.9.1 Integrated Refrigerator and Storage Zero Boil-Off Methodology 6.9.2 Advantages and Challenges 6.9.3 Design and Construction of Heat Exchanger 6.9.4 Integration, Test, and Conclusion 6.10 Extra-Large Lhe Storage Tanks 6.10.1 CERN’s Ultra-Large Lhe Storage Tanks 6.10.2 ITER’s Ultra-Large Lhe Storage Tanks 6.11 Large LNG Storage and Shipping Tanks References Chapter 7 Vacuum Techniques 7.1 Definition of Vacuum 7.2 Vacuum System Basics 7.3 Levels of Vacuum 7.4 Vacuum Pumping 7.5 Vacuum Equipment Leak Checking and Troubleshooting 7.6 Vacuum Measurement 7.7 Temperature Measurement and Vacuum 7.8 Large-Scale Vacuum Systems for Cryogenic Applications 7.9 Thermal Isolation and Vacuum 7.10 Vacuum and Thermal Shields 7.11 Vacuum Chambers for Testing References Chapter 8 Cryogenic Calorimeters for Testing of Thermal Insulation Materials and Systems 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Cylindrical Boil-Off Calorimeter 8.2.1 300 K–77 K Cylindrical Boil-Off Calorimeters 8.2.1.1 Cryostat CS-100 8.2.1.2 Selected Examples of Cylindrical Boil-Off Meter Calorimeters between 300 K and 77 K 8.2.2 CBMCs between 77 K and 4 K 8.2.3 CBMCs between 60 K and 20 K to 4 K 8.3 Flat Plate Boil-Off Calorimeters 8.3.1 FPBCs with Cryogen Guard Vessels 8.3.2 FPBCs without Cryogen Guard Vessels 8.3.3 Macroflash Boil-Off Calorimeter (Commercially Available) 8.4 Thermal Conductive Meter Calorimeters 8.4.1 TCMCs with Cylindrical Insulation Specimens 8.4.2 TCMCs with Flat Plate Insulation Specimens 8.5 Special Multipurpose Calorimeters for MLI 8.5.1 Fermilab Special Multipurpose Calorimeter 8.5.2 Calorimeters for Penetration through MLI 8.6 Spherical Calorimetric Tanks 8.6.1 1,000-Liter Spherical-Calorimetric Tanks 8.6.2 Calorimeter Design and Instrumentation 8.6.3 Test Capability and Key Results 8.7 Cryogenic Heat Management with Calorimeters 8.7.1 Small-Scale Testing of MLI 8.7.2 Large-Scale Implementation and Testing of MLI 8.7.3 Testing of Support Structure to the Propellant Tank 8.7.4 System Test References Chapter 9 Cryogenic Heat Switches for Thermal Management 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Superconducting Cryogenic Heat Switches 9.2.1 Thermal Conductivity of Superconductors 9.2.2 Design and Application of SCHSs 9.3 Magneto-Resistive Heat Switches 9.3.1 Change of Thermal Conductivity 9.3.2 MRHS Development 9.4 Shape Memory Alloy Heat Switches 9.4.1 Shape Memory Alloy 9.4.2 SMA Training for Cryogenic Applications 9.4.3 Design and Development of SMAHS 9.5 Maglev-Smart Bimetal Heat Switches 9.5.1 Maglev with High-Temperature Superconductor-PM 9.5.2 Smart Bimetal Heat Switches 9.5.3 Design and Test of 6-m Cryogenic Transfer Line with Maglev and SBMHS 9.6 Differential Thermal Expansion Heat Switches 9.6.1 DTE-HS Working Principles 9.6.2 Design and Test of DTE-HS 9.7 Piezo Heat Switches 9.7.1 Principles of Piezo Actuators 9.7.2 PZHS Design and Test 9.8 Cryogenic Heat Pipes 9.8.1 Cryogenic Loop Heat Pipes 9.8.2 Pulsating Heat Pipes 9.8.3 Spacecraft Applications of CHPs 9.9 Cryogenic Diode Heat Switches 9.10 Concept of Gas Gap Heat Switches 9.11 H2, Ne, and N2 GGHSs 9.12 4He and 3He Heat Switches 9.12.1 GGHSs for Cryogen-Free Magnet Systems 9.12.2 GGHSs below 4 K 9.12.3 Low-Power, Fast-Response Active GGHSs below 4 K 9.13 Passively Operated GGHSs References Chapter 10 Current Leads for Superconducting Equipment 10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 Short-Duration Overcurrent Heating 10.2 Current Leads for High-Energy Physics Magnets 10.3 Current Leads for MRI Magnets 10.4 Current Leads for Fusion Magnets 10.5 Current Leads for Superconducting Power Applications 10.6 Leads with Special Features 10.7 Summary and Conclusions References Chapter 11 RF Power Input and HOM Couplers for Superconducting Cavities 11.1 Introduction 11.2 High RF Power Input Couplers 11.3 Coaxial High RF Power Input Couplers 11.3.1 General Design Considerations 11.3.2 Key Elements of Coaxial RFIC 11.3.3 Design and Thermal Optimization 11.3.3.1 Design Specifications and Procedurals 11.3.3.2 Key Small Model Calculation 11.3.3.3 Heat Transfer Analysis of the Complete RFIC 11.3.4 Frief Test Results 11.4 Coaxial RFICs with SRF Cavities in Cryomodules 11.5 Waveguide High RF Power Input Couplers 11.5.1 General Features of Waveguide RFICs 11.5.2 Heat Flow Intercept 11.5.3 Waveguide RFICs with SRF Cavities in Cryostats 11.6 High-Order Mode Couplers 11.7 Coaxial HOM Couplers 11.7.1 Design Considerations 11.7.2 General Thermal Analyses 11.7.3 Examples of Coaxial HOM Couplers 11.8 Waveguide HOM Couplers 11.8.1 Advantages of WG HOM Couplers 11.8.2 Early WG HOM Couplers 11.8.3 WG HOM Couplers for High Beam Current 11.9 HOM Beam Tube Dampers 11.9.1 General Considerations and Absorber Materials 11.9.2 HOM BT Dampers at Room Temperature 11.9.3 HOM BT Dampers at Cryogenic Temperature References Chapter 12 Special Cryostats for Laboratory and Space Exploration 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Methods of Cooling Samples/Apparatus in Cryostats 12.3 Configurations of Cryostats for Samples/Apparatus 12.3.1 Vertical Top-Load Cryostats 12.3.2 Other Special Configurations of Cryostats 12.4 General Considerations of Cryostat Thermal Design 12.4.1 Reduction of Solid Thermal Conduction 12.4.2 Minimization of Radiation Heat 12.4.3 Eliminating Gas Convection and Conduction 12.5 Cryostats with Cryogen Bath for Lab Tests 12.5.1 Classical Cryostats with Cryogen Bath 12.5.2 Vertical LHe II Cryostats for Magnet Tests Process Principles Key Functional Components Heat Loads Cryostats with Similar Design but without Lambda Plate 12.5.3 Horizontal LHe Test Cryostats 12.5.4 Cryogen Bath Cryostats with Warm Bore 12.5.5 Compact LHe Bath Test Cryostats 12.6 Cryogen-Free Cryostats for Lab Tests 12.6.1 Cryocooler-Cooled Cryostats with Warm Bore 12.6.2 Pulse Tube-Cooled Cryostats for Laser/Neutron Experiments 12.6.3 Cryostats with Cryocoolers for Online-Operating SC Devices 12.7 Cryostats with Combined Cooling for Lab Tests 12.7.1 Cryostats with LHe Bath/Cryocooler Re-Condensers 12.7.2 LHe II Bath Cryostats with Cryocooler Closed Loop 12.7.3 Special Inserting Cryostats for Applications with Another Background Cryostat Cryocooler-Based Variable Temperature Inserting Cryostats LHe Bath-Based Inserting Cryostats Other Approaches to Varying the T 12.7.4 Cryostats Cooled with Continuing Flow Cryogen Continuous-Flow Cryostats for Optical Microscopy (10 K to 350 K) Variable-T Continuous-Flow Cryostats Inside Scanning Electron Microscopes Counter-Flow Cryostats for Solid Hydrogen Targets 12.8 Challenges and Considerations of Space Cryostats 12.9 Space Cryostats with Cryogen Baths 12.9.1 Solid H2 Cryostat for Space Wide Field Infrared Survey Explorer Mission 12.9.2 He II Bath Cryostats for HSO Space Missions 12.10 Space Cryostats Cooled by Cryocoolers 12.10.1 Cryocooler Subsystems for Mid-Infrared Instrument Missions 12.10.2 Cooling and Heat Rejection on Planck Spacecraft 12.11 Cryostats for Applications below 1 K 12.11.1 Cryostats for Tests below 1 K with Dilution Refrigerators Cryostats of Dry Dilution Refrigerator with Separate 1 K Circuits 12.11.2 Sub-Kelvin 3He Sorption Cryostats for Large-Angle Optical Access 12.11.3 Cryostats for Tests below 1 K with ADRs 12.12 Cryostats for Bio-Medical Applications 12.12.1 Biological Cryostat for Contamination-Free Long-Distance Transfer 12.12.2 Zero Boil-Off Cryostats for SC Magneto-Encephalography References Chapter 13 Demonstration of Cryogenic Heat Management in Large Applications 13.1 Liquid Helium—Best Cryogen for Large SC Machines 13.1.1 Rapid Development of Large LTS Projects/Machines Development of SC Magnet-Based Machines Development of SRF Technology-Based Machines 13.1.2 Liquid He—The Only Practical Cryogen for Large LTS Machines 13.1.3 Optimized LHe Operational Points for Best SC Machine Cooling Challenges of SC Machine Cooling Practical Operation Points for Best Cooling of LTS Machines 13.1.4 Continuing Improvement of Thermal Efficiency 13.2 Large Cryogenic Machines Based on SC Magnets 13.2.1 Common Features and Challenges Long-Pass Distribution and Narrow Cooling Channels Careful Tradeoff between High Magnetic Field and Cost Highly Restricted Requirements of Heat Load and Geometry Size Sectional Design and Multi-T Output of Cryo-Plants 13.2.2 LHC—The Largest SC Accelerator in the World General Features of LHC LHC Magnet and Cryostat LHC Cooling and Distribution 13.2.3 From Tevatron to Other Large SC Machines Tevatron—The First Largest SC Accelerator in the World CMS and Others Future Large Colliders 13.3 Large Cryogenic Machines Based on SRF Technology 13.3.1 General Considerations of SRF Technology-Based Machines 13.3.2 XFEL—The Largest Cryogenic Machine Based on SRF Cavities From TESLA to XFEL Linear Accelerator and Cryomodule of EXFEL European XFEL Cryogenic System 13.3.3 Other Advanced Machines Based on SRF Technologies 13.4 Superconducting Fusion Machines and Cryogenics 13.4.1 Development of Superconducting Fusion Machines 13.4.2 ITER—The World’s Largest SC Fusion Machine General Introduction to ITER ITER SC Magnets ITER Cryostat ITER Vacuum Vessel ITER Cryogenic Plant and Distribution for Magnet Cooling 13.4.3 Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak 13.5 Advanced Applications of H2 13.6 Propulsion Fuel of Space Launch and Exploration 13.6.1 New Space Launch System 13.6.2 Formation of Hydrogen Storage 13.7 Liquefied Natural Gas 13.8 High-Temperature Superconducting Power References Appendix A Cryostat Test Data for Select Thermal Insulations Appendix B Cryostat Test Data for Select MLI Systems Appendix C Thermal Properties of Solid Materials Appendix D Fluid Properties Index