Design of Thermal Energy Systems

Description

Design of Thermal Energy Systems Pradip Majumdar, Northern Illinois University, USA   A comprehensive introduction to the design and analysis of thermal energy systems   Design of Thermal Energy Systems covers the fundamentals and applications in thermal energy systems and components, including conventional power generation and cooling systems, renewable energy systems, heat recovery systems, heat sinks and thermal management.  Practical examples are used throughout and are drawn from solar energy systems, fuel cell and battery thermal management, electrical and electronics cooling, engine exhaust heat and emissions, and manufacturing processes. Recent research topics such as steady and unsteady state simulation and optimization methods are also included.   Key features: Provides a comprehensive introduction to the design and analysis of thermal energy systems, covering fundamentals and applications. Includes a wide range of industrial application problems and worked out example problems.      Applies thermal analysis techniques to generate design specification and ratings. Demonstrates how to design thermal systems and components to meet engineering specifications. Considers alternative options and allows for the estimation of cost and feasibility of thermal systems. Accompanied by a website including software for design and analysis, a solutions manual, and presentation files with PowerPoint slides.   The book is essential reading for: practicing engineers in energy and power industries; consulting engineers in mechanical, electrical and chemical engineering; and senior undergraduate and graduate engineering students. Cover Title Page Copyright Contents Preface About the Author About the Companion Website Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Thermal Engineering Design 1.2 Elements of Design Analysis of Thermal Systems 1.2.1 Some Special Aspects of Thermal Design 1.2.2 Design Types 1.3 Examples of Thermal Energy Design Problems 1.3.1 Solar‐Heated Swimming Pool 1.3.2 A Chilled Water System for Air‐Conditioning System 1.3.2.1 Objective Function 1.3.3 Secondary Water System for Heat Rejection 1.3.4 Solar Rankine Cycle Power Generation System 1.3.5 Residential Air‐Conditioning System 1.3.6 Heat Recovery from Diesel Engine Exhaust 1.3.7 Cooling System for a Li‐ion Battery Stack in a Vehicle Bibliography Chapter 2 Thermodynamics Analysis 2.1 Some Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics 2.1.1 Thermodynamic System and Control Volume 2.1.2 Thermodynamic Properties, States, and Phases 2.1.2.1 Pure Substance 2.1.2.2 Simple Compressible Substance 2.1.2.3 Phase‐Equilibrium Diagram of a Pure Substance 2.1.3 Thermodynamic Processes and Cycles 2.1.3.1 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 2.1.3.2 Thermodynamic Cycle 2.1.4 Energy and Energy Transfer 2.1.5 Heat and Work 2.1.5.1 Heat Energy (Q) 2.1.5.2 Work (W) 2.2 Conservation of Mass 2.2.1 System 2.2.2 Control Volume 2.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics 2.3.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a System 2.3.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume 2.3.3 Special Cases 2.3.3.1 Steady‐State Steady‐Flow (SSSF) Process 2.3.3.2 Uniform‐State Uniform‐Flow (USUF) Process 2.4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 2.4.1 Kelvin–Planck Statement 2.4.2 Clausius Statement 2.4.3 Inequality of Clausius 2.4.3.1 Steady‐State Steady‐Flow (SSSF) Process 2.4.3.2 Uniform‐State Uniform‐Flow (USUF) 2.4.3.3 Reversible Steady‐Flow Work 2.5 Carnot Cycle 2.6 Machine Efficiencies 2.6.1 Turbine 2.6.2 Compressor and Pumps 2.6.2.1 Compressor 2.6.2.2 Pump 2.7 Specific Heat 2.8 Ideal Gas Equation of State 2.9 Change in Enthalpy, Internal Energy, Entropy, and Gibbs Function for Ideal Gases 2.9.1 Change in Enthalpy and Internal Energy 2.9.1.1 Case I: Constant Specific Heat 2.9.1.2 Case II: Temperature‐Dependent Specific Heat values 2.9.1.3 Case III 2.9.2 Entropy Change in a Process 2.9.3 Special Cases 2.9.3.1 Case I: For Constant Specific Heat Values 2.9.3.2 Case II: For Temperature‐Dependent Specific Heat Values 2.9.3.3 Case III 2.10 Reversible Polytropic Process 2.11 Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic Process 2.12 Mixture of Gases 2.12.1 Mixture Parameters 2.12.1.1 Mass Fraction 2.12.1.2 Mole Fraction 2.12.2 Ideal Gas Mixture Properties 2.12.3 Change of Properties in a Thermodynamic Process 2.12.4 Moist Air: Mixture of Air and Water Vapor 2.12.4.1 Dew‐Point Temperature (Tdp) 2.12.4.2 Relative Humidity (RH or ϕ) 2.12.4.3 Humidity Ratio (ω) 2.12.4.4 Dry‐Bulb and Wet‐Bulb Temperatures 2.12.4.5 Moist‐air Enthalpy 2.12.4.6 Psychrometric Chart 2.12.5 Application of Conservation Equations to Air‐Conditioning Process 2.12.5.1 Conservation of Mass 2.12.5.2 Conservation of Energy 2.12.6 Heating of Moist Air 2.12.6.1 Conservation Mass 2.12.6.2 Conservation of Energy 2.12.6.3 Cooling and Dehumidification Process 2.12.6.4 Humidification Process 2.12.6.5 Conservation of Mass 2.12.6.6 Conservation of Energy 2.12.6.7 Mixing Process 2.13 Combustion Process 2.13.1 Combustion Reaction 2.13.2 Balanced Reaction Equation 2.13.3 Hydrocarbon Fuel Types 2.13.4 Combustion Reaction Model 2.13.5 Major Combustion Parameters 2.13.5.1 Theoretical Air (Stoichiometric) and Excess Air 2.13.5.2 Air‐Fuel Ratio (AF) 2.13.5.3 Equivalence Ratio (Φ) 2.13.5.4 Evaluation of Enthalpy and Entropy in a Reacting System 2.13.6 First Law for Reacting Systems 2.13.7 Temperature of Product of Combustion 2.14 Power‐Generating Cycles 2.14.1 Vapor Power Cycles 2.14.1.1 Rankine Vapor Power Cycle 2.14.1.2 First Law of Thermodynamic Analysis of a Standard Rankine Vapor Power Cycle 2.14.1.3 Thermodynamic analysis of a standard Rankine cycle: 2.14.1.4 Effect of Superheating and Reheating 2.14.1.5 Thermodynamic Analysis of Regenerative Feed Water Power Cycle 2.14.2 Gas Power System 2.14.2.1 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Systems 2.14.2.2 Simplified Model for the Analysis of Internal Combustion Engine: Air Standard Cycles 2.14.2.3 Otto Cycle for Spark Ignition Engine 2.14.2.4 First Law of Thermodynamic Analysis 2.14.2.5 The Diesel Cycle for Compression–Ignition Engine 2.14.2.6 Brayton Cycle: A Standard Cycle for Gas Turbine Engine 2.14.2.7 Gas Turbine with Regenerative Heat Exchanger for Heat Recovery 2.14.2.8 First Law of Thermodynamic Analysis of a Gas Turbine Cycle with Regenerative Heat Recovery 2.14.2.9 Gas Turbine with Multistage Compressions and Expansions 2.15 Cooling and Refrigeration System 2.15.1 Vapor Compression Refrigeration System 2.15.1.1 Thermodynamic Analysis of Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle 2.15.1.2 The Absorption Refrigeration System 2.16 The Second Law or Exergy Analysis 2.16.1 Irreversibility 2.16.2 Availability or Exergy 2.16.3 Second Law Efficiency 2.17 Case Study Problems 2.17.1 Case Study Problem: Analysis and Design of Solar‐Driven Irrigation Pump Bibliography Problems Chapter 3 Review of Basic Laws and Concepts of Heat Transfer 3.1 Heat‐Transfer Modes and Rate Equations 3.2 Conduction Heat Transfer 3.2.1 Conduction Heat‐Transfer Resistance 3.2.1.1 Boundary Conditions 3.2.2 Thermal Resistances and Heat Transfer in Composite Layers 3.3 Convection Heat Transfer 3.3.1 Convection Modes 3.3.2 Convection Heat‐Transfer Coefficient 3.3.2.1 Local Convection 3.3.2.2 Average or Mean Heat‐Transfer Coefficient 3.3.3 Controlling Forces in Convection 3.3.3.1 Surface Forces 3.3.3.2 Body Forces 3.3.4 Major Factors and Parameters in Convection Heat Transfer 3.3.4.1 Thermophysical and Transport properties 3.3.4.2 Flow Geometry 3.3.4.3 Convection Heat‐Transfer Correlations 3.3.4.4 Forced Convection Heat Transfer and Correlations 3.3.5 Forced Convection Internal Flow and Heat Transfer 3.3.5.1 Laminar Flows 3.3.5.2 Internal Turbulent‐Flow Heat‐Transfer Correlations 3.3.5.3 Liquid Metals 3.3.6 External Flows 3.3.6.1 Laminar Flow Over a Flat Plate 3.3.6.2 Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate 3.3.6.3 External Cross Flow Over a Cylinder 3.3.6.4 Flow Over a Sphere 3.3.6.5 Flow Over Tube Banks 3.3.6.6 Jet Cooling 3.3.7 Free or Natural Convection 3.3.7.1 Effects of Turbulence 3.3.7.2 Empirical Free Convection Correlations 3.3.7.3 Free Convection Over a Vertical Plate 3.3.7.4 Free Convection Over a Horizontal Surface (Figure ) 3.3.8 Condensation Heat Transfer 3.3.8.1 Laminar Film Condensation Over a Vertical Plate 3.3.8.2 Turbulent Condensation 3.3.8.3 Condensation Over Horizontal Cylindrical Tube 3.3.9 Boiling Heat Transfer 3.3.9.1 Pool Boiling 3.3.9.2 Film Pool Boiling 3.3.10 Internal Forced Convection Two‐phase Flow Boiling 3.3.11 Effect of Temperature 3.3.11.1 Approach – I 3.3.11.2 Approach – II 3.4 Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer 3.5 Heat‐Transfer Resistances 3.6 Contact Resistances and Thermal Interface Materials Bibliography Chapter 4 Design and Selection of Fins and Heat Sinks 4.1 Design Requirements for Fins and Heat Sinks 4.2 Configurations and Types of Fins 4.3 Fin Performance Modeling and Solutions 4.3.1 A General Fin Heat Equation 4.3.1.1 Straight Longitudinal Fin of Uniform Cross‐section 4.3.1.2 Straight Fin of Variable Cross‐section 4.3.1.3 Spine Fin of Circular Cone Shape 4.3.1.4 Straight Parabolic Fin with Circular Base 4.3.1.5 Straight Concave Parabolic Fin with Rectangular Base 4.3.1.6 Straight Fin of Trapezoidal Cross‐section 4.3.1.7 Annular or Circular Fin 4.4 Parameters for Fin Performance Characterization 4.4.1 Fin Effectiveness 4.4.2 Fin Efficiency 4.4.3 Fin Thermal Resistance 4.5 Multiple Fin Arrays and Overall Surface 4.5.1 Finned‐Surface Convection Thermal Resistance 4.5.2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for a Finned Surface 4.5.2.1 Plane Wall 4.5.2.2 Cylindrical Surface Bibliography Websites Problems Chapter 5 Analysis and Design of Heat Exchangers 5.1 Heat‐exchanger Types and Classifications 5.1.1 Double‐Pipe Heat Exchanger 5.1.2 Shell‐and‐Tube Heat Exchangers 5.1.3 Cross Flow Heat Exchangers 5.1.4 Compact Heat Exchangers 5.2 Heat‐exchanger Codes and Standards 5.2.1 TEMA Standard 5.2.2 API Standard 600 (2015) 5.2.3 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BVPC) (2017) 5.2.4 Heat Exchanger Institute (HEI) Standard 5.2.5 API‐662 Standard for Plate‐heat Exchangers 5.2.6 HEI 3092 Standard for Gasketed Plate‐heat Exchangers 5.2.7 ASME B31.1 for Power Piping 5.3 Heat‐exchanger Design Options 5.3.1 Categories of Shell‐and‐Tube Heat Exchanger 5.3.1.1 Fixed Tube Sheet 5.3.1.2 Return Bend or U‐Tube 5.3.1.3 Floating Tube Sheet 5.3.2 Recommended Design Assumptions 5.3.2.1 Tube Geometrical Parameters 5.3.2.2 Shell Geometrical Parameters 5.3.2.3 Counter Flow Vs. Parallel Flow 5.3.2.4 Choice of a Fluid in Shell Side Vs. Tube Side 5.4 Heat‐exchanger Design Analysis Methods 5.4.1 Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) 5.4.1.1 Parallel‐Flow Arrangement 5.4.1.2 Counter Flow 5.4.1.3 Multi‐Pass Shell‐Tube and Cross Flow Heat Exchanger 5.4.2 Effectiveness – NTU Method 5.4.3 Overall Heat‐transfer Coefficient in Heat Exchanger 5.4.4 Finned Surface 5.4.5 Fouling Factor 5.5 Shell‐and‐tube Heat Exchanger 5.5.1 Flow Geometry and Flow Parameters 5.5.1.1 Tube‐Side Flow Geometry 5.5.1.2 Ratio of Tube‐side Free Flow Area to Flow Area of the Tubes 5.5.1.3 Net Surface Area for Heat Transfer 5.5.1.4 Shell‐Side Flow Geometry 5.5.2 Types and Effects of Baffles 5.5.3 Tube Arrangements in Shell Side 5.5.4 Shell‐Side Flow Area 5.5.5 Estimation of Heat‐transfer Coefficients in a Shell and Tube 5.5.5.1 Tube Arrangements Inside Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 5.5.5.2 Tube‐Side Convection Coefficient 5.5.5.3 Shell‐Side Convection Correlation 5.5.6 Pressure Drops in Tube and Shell Sides 5.5.7 Additional Shell‐Side Consideration 5.5.7.1 Corrected Shell‐Side Convection Heat‐transfer Coefficient 5.5.7.2 Corrected Shell‐Side Pressure Drop 5.5.8 Temperature‐Dependent Fluid Properties and Corrections 5.5.9 Classification of Heat‐exchanger Design Problems Types 5.5.10 Heat‐exchanger Design Analysis: Methodology and Algorithms 5.5.10.1 Design Type‐1: Design Methodology 5.5.10.2 Heat‐exchanger Design Problem Type‐IIa 5.5.10.3 Heat‐exchanger Design Problem Type‐IIb 5.5.10.4 Shah's Method for Enhanced Convergence in Type‐II Design Problems 5.5.11 Design Procedure for Type‐II Heat Exchanger Based on Shah's Method 5.5.11.0 Algorithm 5.1 5.6 Compact Heat Exchangers 5.6.1 Algorithm for Compact heat‐exchanger Design and Analysis 5.7 Heat‐exchanger Network (HEN) Analysis 5.7.1 Basic Analysis Process for HEN The PINCH Design Method for Heat‐exchanger Networks Bibliography Problems Chapter 6 Analysis and Design of Solar Collector and Solar Thermal System 6.1 Solar Thermal Energy System 6.1.1 Classification of Solar System 6.1.1.1 Active System 6.1.1.2 Passive System 6.1.2 Examples of Active Solar Thermal System 6.1.2.1 Solar Water‐Heating System 6.1.2.2 Solar Space‐Heating System 6.1.2.3 Solar‐Cooling System 6.1.2.4 A Solar‐Driven Irrigation Pump 6.1.2.5 Solar Rankine Cycle Power Generation 6.2 Types and Selection of Solar Collectors 6.2.1 Collector Operational Temperatures 6.2.2 Fixed vs. Tracking 6.2.3 Types of Collector Design: Flat Plate vs. Concentrating 6.2.4 Flat‐Plate Solar Collector 6.2.5 Concentrating Collector 6.2.5.1 Classification Concentrating Collector 6.2.6 Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) Collector 6.2.6.1 Truncated CPC Collector 6.3 Solar Radiation Characteristics and Estimation 6.3.1 Solar Radiation 6.3.2 Thermal Radiation 6.3.3 Solar Intensity Distribution 6.3.4 Extraterrestrial Radiation 6.3.5 Solar Constant (Gsc) 6.3.6 Total Incident Radiation 6.3.7 Computation of Solar Time 6.3.8 Greenwich Civil Time (LCT) 6.3.9 Local Civil Time (LCT) 6.3.10 Local Standard Time 6.3.11 Local Solar Time (LST) 6.3.12 Basic Earth and Sun Angles 6.3.13 Solar and Wall Angles 6.3.13.1 Solar Angles 6.3.13.2 Wall Angles 6.3.13.3 ASHRAE Clear‐Day Model for Estimation of Solar Radiation Flux 6.3.13.4 Diffuse Radiation on Nonhorizontal Surface 6.3.13.5 Reflected Radiation (GR) 6.4 Optical Properties of Absorber Plate and Glazing Materials 6.4.1 Solar Radiation – Material Interaction 6.4.2 Optical Property of Absorber Plate 6.4.3 Selective Coating 6.4.4 Optical Properties of Glazing Materials 6.4.4.1 Absorption Coefficient 6.4.4.2 Reflectance Coefficient 6.4.5 Transmittance Through Glass Cover 6.4.6 Optical Properties for Absorbing Glazing Cover 6.4.7 Transmittance–Absorptance Product of Collector (τα) 6.4.8 Absorbed Solar Radiation on a Collector Surface 6.4.9 Types and Selection of Glazing 6.4.10 Thermal Insulation 6.5 Solar Thermal Collector Analysis and Performance 6.5.1 Flat‐Plate Collector 6.5.1.1 Solar Collector Heat Loss and Overall Heat Transfer 6.5.1.2 Temperature Distribution in Absorbing Plate 6.5.1.3 Collector Performance 6.5.1.4 Collector Efficiency Factor (F′) 6.5.1.5 Fluid Temperature Distribution in the Collector Tube 6.5.1.6 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR) 6.5.1.7 Three‐Dimensional Analysis 6.5.2 Concentrating Collector 6.5.3 Collector Performance Characterization 6.5.3.1 Solar Collector Efficiency (ηc) Bibliography Problems Chapter 7 Rotary Components in Thermal Systems 7.1 Turbomachine Types 7.2 Basic Equations of Turbomachines 7.2.1 Conservation of Angular Momentum 7.2.2 The Euler Equation of Energy Transfer in Turbomachines 7.2.3 Velocity Diagrams 7.2.4 Slip Consideration 7.3 Impeller‐Blade Design and Flow Channels 7.4 Centrifugal Pumps 7.4.1 Components of Centrifugal Pumps 7.4.1.1 Vane or Blade Types 7.4.1.2 Impeller Casing 7.4.1.3 Volute and Vane Diffuser Casing 7.4.2 Velocity Triangles and Basic Equations for Pump Performance 7.4.2.1 Volume Flow Rates 7.4.2.2 Pump Performance Output 7.4.2.3 Major Pump Parameters 7.4.2.4 Pump Head, hP 7.4.2.5 Pump Efficiency 7.4.2.6 Pump Performance Characteristics 7.4.3 Real Pump Performance 7.4.3.1 Effect of Slip Factor 7.4.3.2 Pump Performance Characteristics 7.4.4 Effect of Operating Impeller Speed 7.4.5 External Losses 7.4.5.1 Leakage Loss 7.4.5.2 Disk Friction Loss 7.4.5.3 Mechanical Loss 7.5 Specific Speed and Pump Selections 7.5.1 Effect of Specific Speed on Pump Performance Characteristics 7.5.2 Affinity Laws for Centrifugal Pumps 7.6 Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 7.6.1 Thoma Cavitation Parameter (σ) 7.6.2 Cavitation Resistance Coatings 7.7 Pumps in Series or in Parallel 7.7.1 Pumps Connected in Series 7.7.2 Pumps Connected in Parallel 7.8 Pump Standards and Codes 7.8.1 ASME Centrifugal Pumps Standards – PTC 8.2 7.8.2 ANSI PUMPS – ASME B73.1 Standards for Chemical/Industrial Process Pumps 7.8.3 ANSI/HI: Hydraulic Institute Standards for Pumps and Pumping Systems Bibliography Problems Chapter 8 Analysis and Design of Fluid‐Flow Systems 8.1 Basic Equations of Fluid Flow 8.1.1 Conservation of Mass 8.1.2 Conservation of Energy 8.1.3 Basic Energy Equation for Analyzing Pipe Flow 8.1.4 Frictional Head Loss for Flow in Pipes: Major Loss 8.1.4.1 Friction Factor: Fully Developed Laminar Flow in Circular Pipe 8.1.4.2 Frictional Pressure Drops for Turbulent Flow 8.1.4.3 Minor Losses in Valves and Fittings 8.1.4.4 Minor Loss Coefficient Values 8.1.4.5 Gradual Expansion and Contraction 8.1.4.6 Valves and Fittings 8.1.4.7 Elbows and Bends 8.2 Piping Systems with Rotary Devices 8.3 Piping System Characteristics 8.4 Piping System Design Procedure 8.5 Piping Network Classifications 8.5.1 Pipes in Series 8.5.2 Pipes in Parallel 8.6 Piping System in Series–Parallel Network 8.6.1 Hardy Cross Method – Based on Darcy–Weisbach Friction Factor 8.6.2 Hazen Williams – Based Hardy Cross Method 8.6.2.1 Hazen Williams Expression and Coefficients 8.6.3 Hardy Cross Method Algorithm 8.6.4 Generalized Hardy Cross 8.6.4.1 Minor Losses 8.6.4.2 Devices 8.6.4.3 Pumps 8.6.4.4 Generalized Expression Bibliography Problems Chapter 9 Simulation of Thermal Systems 9.1 Basic Principles, Types, and Classes of Simulations 9.2 Simulation Procedure and Methodology 9.2.1 Information Flow Diagram 9.2.2 Development of the Information Flow Diagram 9.3 Solution Methods for System Simulation 9.4 Newton–Raphson Method for the Solution of Nonlinear Equations 9.5 Newton–Raphson Method for the Solution of a System of Equations 9.6 Newton–Raphson Solution Algorithm 9.7 Some Facts About the Newton–Raphson Method 9.8 Numerical Evaluations of Partial Derivatives in System Simulation 9.9 Different Solution Options for a Linear System of Equations 9.10 A Generalized Newton–Raphson Algorithm for System Simulation Bibliography Problems Chapter 10 Optimization of Thermal Components and Systems 10.1 Optimization Analysis Models 10.2 Formulation and Mathematical Representation of Optimization Problems in Thermal Systems 10.2.1 Analysis and Design Variables 10.2.2 Objective Function 10.2.3 Design Constraints 10.2.3.1 Equality and Inequality Constraints 10.2.3.2 Linear and Nonlinear Constraints 10.2.3.3 Nonlinear Constraints 10.2.4 Implicit Constraints 10.2.5 Formulation of the Optimization Problem 10.2.6 General Mathematical Statement of Optimization Problems 10.2.7 Examples of Design Optimization Problems 10.3 Optimization Methods 10.3.1 Graphical Optimization Method 10.3.2 Optimization Method of Differential Calculus 10.3.2.1 Functions with Many Variables 10.3.3 Method of Lagrange Multiplier 10.4 A General Procedure for Lagrange Multiplier 10.4.1 Geometric Programming 10.4.1.1 Degree of Difficulty 10.4.1.2 General Optimization Procedure by Geometric Programming 10.4.1.3 Multivariable Geometric Programming 10.4.2 Procedure for Solving Multivariable Problem Using Geometric Programing 10.4.2.1 Multivariable Geometric Programing with Constraints Bibliography Problems Appendix A Parametric Representation of Thermal Parameters and Properties A.1 Examples of Data for Parametric Representations A.2 Basic Approaches for Equation Development A.3 Parametric Representation Techniques A.3.1 Polynomial Curve‐Fitting A.3.1.1 Polynomial Curve‐Fitting – Single Variable A.3.1.2 Polynomial Curve‐Fitting – Two Variables or More Variables A.3.2 Least Square Regression Curve‐Fitting A.3.2.1 Accuracy of the Least Square Curve Fit A.3.3 Curve‐Fitted Correlational Function for Thermophysical Properties Bibliography Problems Appendix B Economic Analysis and Cost Estimation of Thermal Components and Systems B.1 Economic Analysis Procedure B.1.1 Some Basic Concepts B.1.1.1 Interest Rate and Its Effect on Investments B.1.2 Some Common Methods of Economic Evaluation B.1.2.1 Return on Investment (ROI) Method B.1.2.2 Payback Method B.1.3 Life Cycle Cost (LCC) Analysis B.2 Cost Estimation of Thermal Components and Systems B.2.1 Equipment Cost Bibliography Problems Appendix C Thermodynamic and Thermophysical Properties Appendix D Modified Bessel Function of the First and the Second Kinds Appendix E Constants and Conversion Units Index EULA