Stone Vessels in the Levant

Description

Examining stone vessels in the Levant during the 2nd millennium BC, the author explores the links between material culture and society through a comprehensive study of production and distribution. Extensively illustrated with 100 drawings, maps and charts, this volume includes a full object catalogue. This study represents the first comprehensive overview of the stone vessel assemblagesof the Levant in this period, a time which, fed by an increase of wealth and interregional trade, saw a growth in the popularity and variety of such vessels. Previously, our understanding of the varied functions and forms of these diverse vessels has been relatively underdeveloped. In this volume the author attempts to address this problem by creating a typological framework though which we can analyse variability and define essential characteristics of local stone vessel workshops. Only once this has been achieved is it possible to look at stone vessel production in its wider cultural context. Subsequent chapters explore broader themes, beginning within the workshops themselves, examining the links between craftsmen, their sources of raw materials, and the authorities that controlled and distributed their output. Considerations of the geographical and chronological distribution of such goods are then used to provide a regional perspective for the operation of these workshops, connections between them, and further insights into the nature of local and international trade. Finally, the objects themselves can be used to assess the impact of trends such as the growing Egyptianization of the ruling classes of the Levant at this time. Cover Dedication Title Copyright Contents Acknowledgements List of Illustrations List of Tables CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 'On the backs of giants': previous stone vessel research 2 Defining the research parameters 3 Problems inherent in the dataset 4 A longer than usual life-cycle: the impact of heirlooms and tomb looting on vessel chronology 5 Inscribed stone vessels: blessing or curse? CHAPTER TWO IMPORTED STONE VESSELS 1 Minoan stone vessels 1.1 Minoan forms found in the Levant 1.1.1 Lamps 1.1.2 Tables 1.1.3 Cups 1.1.4 Small bowls or jars 1.1.5 Fragmentary examples of possible Minoan origin 1.2 Minoan decorative elements 1.3 The significance of Minoan imports in the levant 2 Cypriot stone vessels 3 Egyptian stone vessels 3.1 Egyptian forms found in the Levant 3.1.1 Rectangular palettes 3.1.2 Plates 3.1.3 Bowls 3.1.3.1 Hemispherical bowls 3.1.3.2 Carinated bowls 3.1.3.3. Zoomorphic bowls 3.1.4 'Swimming-girl' spoons 3.1.5 Pyxides 3.1.6 Tazze 3.1.7 Goblets 3.1.8 Alabastra 3.1.8.1 Drop-shaped alabastra 3.1.8.2 Conical alabastra 3.1.8.2.1 Conical alabastra with funnel-shaped mouths 3.1.8.2.2 Conical alabastra with broad flat-topped rim 3.1.8.2.3 Conical alabastra with lug handles above rim 3.1.8.2.4 Fragmentary conical alabastra 3.1.9 Jugs and juglets 3.1.9.1 High shouldered juglets (type 1) 3.1.9.2 Dipper juglets (type 2) 3.1.9.3 Juglets with alabastra-shaped bodies (type 3) 3.1.9.4 Juglets imitating Cypriot base-ring ware (type 4) 3.1.9.5 Ovoid juglets (type 5) 3.1.9.6. Piriform juglets (type 6) 3.1.9.7 Broad-mouthed jugs (type 7) 3.1.10 Stirrup jars 3.1.11 Flasks 3.1.12 Pilgrim flasks 3.1.13 Tube jars 3.1.13.1 Simple tube with upright sides (type 1) 3-1.13.2 Skeuomorphic vessels (type 2) 3.1.13.3 Monkey holding tube-shaped jar (type 3) 3.1.14 Cylindrical jars 3.1.15 Shouldered cylindrical jars 3-1.16 Jars of archaic form 3.1.17 Small piriform jars 3.1.18 Drop jars 3.1.19 Ovoid jars 3.1.20 Footed jars 3.1.20.1 Footed jars without handles (type 1) 3.1.20.2 Footed jars with horizontal loop handles (type 2) 3.1.21 Amphorae 3.1.22 Fish-shaped jars 3.1.23 Anthropomorphic statue jars 3.1.24 Stands 3.1.25 Lids 3.1.26 Diagnostic fragments of Egyptian type 3.1.26.1 Egyptian rim types 3.1.26.2 Egyptian handle types 3.1.26.3 Egyptian base sherds 3.2 Egyptian decorative styles 3.2.1 Incised decoration 3.2.2 Incision with inlaid colour 3.2.3 Painted decoration 3.2.4 Added metal 3.2.5 Sculpted decoration 3.2.6 Egyptian stone vessels with orientalising decoration 3.3 Features characteristic of Egyptian workshops 3.4 Egyptian palace or temple workshops 3.5 Levantine influences on Egyptian stone vessel workshops: Egyptian versus 'Egyptianising'. CHAPTER THREE LOCAL STONE VESSELS 1 Palestinian gypsum vessels 1.1 The development of Palestinian stone vessel forms 1.1.1 Plates 1.1.2 Bowls 1.1.2.1 Everted bowls 1.1.2.2 Hemispherical bowls 1.1.2.3 Carinated bowls 1.1.2.4 Ram's-head handled bowls 1.1.3 Semi-circular pyxides or bowls 1.1.4 Lug-handled pyxides 1.1.5 Tazze 1.1.6 Goblets 1.1.7 Alabastra 1.1.7.1 Drop-shaped alabastra 1.1.7.2 Conical alabastra 1.1.8 Bottles 1.1.9 Jugs and juglets 1.1.9.1 Unfinished juglets 1.1.9.2 Juglets with high rounded shoulders (type 1) 1.1.9.3 Dipper juglets (type 2) 1.1.9.4 Juglets with alabastra-shaped bodies (type 3) 1.1.9.5 Globular juglets (type 4) 1.1.9.6 Spouted jugs 1.1.10 Flasks 1.1.11 Pilgrim flasks 1.1.12 Shouldered cylindrical jars 1.1.13 Squat jars 1.1.14 Lug-handled jars 1.1.15 Stoppers 1.1.16 Diagnostic fragments 1.2 Palestinian decorative styles 1.2.1 Palestine decorative styles of the MBII-LBI period 1.2.1.1 The Jericho group 1.2.1.2 The Pella group 1.2.2 Palestinian decorative styles of the Late Bronze and early Iron Age 1.3 Influence and interaction: the impact of other products on the development of the Palestinian gypsum vessel industry 2 Syrian stone vessels 2.1 The royal workshop at Atchana 2.2 Syrian serpentine workshops 2.3 Chlorite workshops at Ras Shamra 2.3.1 Bowls 2.3.2 Miniature cups 2.3.3 Alabastra 2.3.4 Diagnostic fragments 3 Levantine groundstone vessels and installations 3.1 The development of Levantine stone vessel forms 3.1.1 Plates 3.1.2 Bowls 3.1.2.1 Everted bowls 3.1.2.2 Carinated bowls 3.1.2.3 Pedestal bowls 3.1.2.4 Deep upright bowls or cups 3.1.2.5 Tripod bowls 3.1.3 Mortar bowls 3.1.3.1 Upright mortar bowls 3.1.3.2 Everted mortar bowls 3.1.3.3 Triangular mortar bowls or lamps 3.1.3.4 Pedestal mortar bowls 3.1.3.5 Tripod mortar bowls 3.1.3.6 Footed mortar bowls with four legs 3.1.4 Mortars 3.1.5 Pot bellows 3.1.6 Funnels and tuyères 3.1.7 Basins 3.1.8 Tables 3.1.9 Lids and stoppers 3.1.10 Diagnostic fragments 3.2 Levantine decorative styles 3.2.1 Decorated temple installations 3.2.2 Decorated plates and bowls 3.3 The characteristics of Levantine stone vessel workshops 4 Vessels of uncertain origin 5 The relationships between stone vessel workshops and craftsmen working with other materials 6 The influence of imported forms on local stone workshops CHAPTER FOUR MATERIALS AND SOURCES 1 Introduction 2 The relationship between sources of raw materials and the development of stone vessel workshops 2.1 Organising access to raw materials 2.2 Collection methods 2.3 Trade in raw materials 3 Materials appearing in the stone vessel repertoires of the Levant 3.1 Soft sedimentary and metamorphic stones (Mohs 1-2.5) 3.1.1 Chalk 3.1.2 Chlorite and steatite 3.1.3 Gypsum 3.2 Moderate to hard sedimentary and metamorphic stones (Mohs 3-7) 3.2.1 Breccia 3.2.2 Calcite 3.2.3 Gneiss 3.2.4 Limestone 3.2.5 Marble 3.2.6 Quartzite and quartzitic sandstones 3.2.7 Sandstone 3.2.8 Schist 3.2.9 Serpentine 3.2.10 Siltstone 3.2.11 Slate 3.3 Hard igneous stones (Mohs 5-7) 3.3.1 Anorthosite 3.3.2 Basalt 3.3.3 Diorite 3.3.4 Gabbro 3.3.5 Granite 3.3.6 Lava 3.3.7 Obsidian 3.3.8 Porphyritic stones 3.3.9 Pumice 3.3.10 Trachyte 3.4 Minerals and semi-precious stones (Mohs 5-7) 3.4.1 Agate 3.4.2 Carnelian 3.4.3 Hematite 3.4.4 Jasper 3.4.5 Sardonyx 4 Composite vessels made of several materials. 5 Textual references to stone types 6 Overview of material use in stone vessel workshops 6.1 Comparative frequency of materials 6.2 Chronological aspects of material use 6.3 Relationship of material to shape 6.4 Relationship of material to technology 6.5 Production centres and material use 7 Conclusions CHAPTER FIVE STONE VESSEL WORKPLACES 1 Relationship of workshops to external authorities 2 Workplace remains 2.1 In-situ workshop evidence 2.2 Unfinished vessels and wasters out of their original context 2.2.1 The unfinished Minoan lamp from Atchana 2.2.2 Unfinished vessel wasters and blanks from Beth Shan 2.3 Manufacturing debris and debitage 3 Comparing modern and ancient workplaces 3.1 Meshhed workshop 3.2 Gurneh workshop 3.3 Comparative rates of production in modern stone vessel workshops 3.4 Production modes in ancient stone vessel workshops 4 Conclusions CHAPTER SIX THE TOOLS AND TECHNOLOGY BEHIND STONE VESSEL MANUFACTURE 1 Introduction 2 Drill technology 2.1 Drill mechanisms 2.2 Drill bits 2.3 Abrasive powder 2.4 Lubricants 2.5 Evidence for use of the drill in the Levant 3 Cutting tools 4 Compasses 5 The lathe 6 Smoothing and polishing tools and agents 7 A regional survey of manufacturing techniques 7.1 Egypt 7.1.1 Egyptian drill-made vessels 7.1.2 Egyptian chisel-made vessels 7.2 Minoan Crete 7.2.1 Minoan drill-made vessels 7.2.2 Minoan chisel-made vessels 7.3 Cyprus 7.4 The Levant 7.4.1 Syrian drill-made vessels 7.4.2 Syrian chisel-made vessels 7.4.3 Palestinian chisel-made vessels 7.4.4 Levantine groundstone 8 Conclusions CHAPTER SEVEN DISTRIBUTION 1 South Coastal Plain and northeastern Sinai 1.1 Tell Abu Salima 1.2 Deir el-Balah 1.3 Tell el-'Ajjul 1.4 Tell Far'ah South 1.5 Tell Sera 1.6 Tell Nagila 1.7 Tell el-Hesi 1.8 Ashdod 1.9 Tell Miqne (Ekron) 1.10 Palmahim 1.11 Dhahrat el-Humraiya 1.12 El-Jisr and Nebi Rubin 2 Sharon Plain 2.1 Tell Qasile 2.2 Tell Michal 2.3 Barqai 2.4 Tell Mevorakh 3 Judean Hills 3.1 Tell Beit Mirsim 3.2 Lachish 3.3 Tell Jedur 3.4 Khirbet Kufin 3.5 Ain Shems 3.6 Jerusalem 3.7 Manahat 3.8 Nahalat Ahim 3.9 Moza 'Illit 3.10 Gezer 3.11 Gibeon 4 Samarian Hills 4.1 Shiloh 4.2 Shechem 4.3 Mount Ebal 4.4 Tell el-Far'ah 5 Jezreel Valley 5.1 Taanach 5.2 Megiddo 5.3 'Afula 5.4 Tell Qiri 6 The Plain of Akko and Western Galilee 6.1 Tell Abu Hawam 6.2 Akko 7 Jordan Valley 7.1 Beth Shan 7.2 Pella 7.3 Tell es-Sa'idiyeh 7.4 Deir 'Alla 7.5 Jericho 8 The Southern Arabah region 8.1 Timna 9 South Transjordanian Plateau 9.1 Amman 9.2 Sahab 9.3 Baq'ah Valley 10 North Transjordanian Plateau 10.1 Tell el-Husn 10.2 Irbid 11 Eastern Jordan and the Hauran 12 Eastern Galilee 12.1 Ginosar 12.2 Hazor 12.3 Tell Dan 13 Coastal Northern Levant 13.1 Tyre 13.2 Beirut 13.3 Byblos 13.4. Ras Shamra and Minet el-Beida 13.5 Ras Ibn Hani 14 The Amuq Valley 14.1 Atchana 15 North Central Syria and the Orontes Valley 15.1 Ebla (Tell Mardikh) 15.2 Hama 15.3 Qatna (Tell Mishrife) 16 Biqa'a Valley 16.1 Kamid el-Loz 16.2 Tell Nebi Mend 17 Damascus Basin 17.1 Tell es-Salihiyeh 18 Conclusions CHAPTER EIGHT SETTING THE INDUSTRY IN CONTEXT 1 Explaining the movement of goods 1.1 Economic exchange 1.2 Incidental movement of goods 2 Transferring ideas and technology 3 The evolution of distribution networks 3.1 Egyptian imports 3.2 Minoan and Cypriot imports 3.3 Palestinian gypsum vessels 3.4 Levantine groundstone vessels 4 Conclusions Introduction to the Catalogue Object Catalogue Appendix A Site concordance Appendix Β Materials concordance Appendix C Museum concordance Abbreviations References Index