Trends in Teaching Experimentation in the Life Sciences: Putting Research into Practice to Drive Institutional Change

Description

This book is a guide for educators on how to develop and evaluate evidence-based strategies for teaching biological experimentation to thereby improve existing and develop new curricula. It unveils the flawed assumptions made at the classroom, department, and institutional level about what students are learning and what help they might need to develop competence in biological experimentation. Specific case studies illustrate a comprehensive list of key scientific competencies that unpack what it means to be a competent experimental life scientist. It includes explicit evidence-based guidelines for educators regarding the teaching, learning, and assessment of biological research competencies. The book also provides practical teacher guides and exemplars of assignments and assessments. It contains a complete analysis of the variety of tools developed thus far to assess learning in this domain. This book contributes to the growth of public understanding of biological issues including scientific literacy and the crucial importance of evidence-based decision-making around public policy. It will be beneficial to life science instructors, biology education researchers and science administrators who aim to improve teaching in life science departments. Chapters 6, 12, 14 and 22 are available open access under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License via link.springer.com. Preface Part I: Vision and Initiation Phase: Envisioning What, When, and How Students Learn About Biological Experimentation Part II: Operationalizing and Planning: Designing Instruction to Promote Learning of Biological Experimentation Part III: Implementation and Student Engagement: Guiding Learners to Do Experiments and Use Representations in Biological Research Part IV: Assessment, Evaluation, and Grading What Students Learn About Biological Experimentation Part V: Complementary Frameworks for Guiding Students’ Experimentation Practice Part VI: Approaches to Biological Experimentation Instruction of Relevance to Biology Education Programs in General Cross-Cutting Trends Contextual and Practical Implications for Instructors Summary References Contents Editors and Contributors About the Editors Contributors Abbreviations Part I: Vision and Initiation Phase: Envisioning What, When, and How Students Learn About Biological Experimentation Chapter 1: The Problem with Teaching Experimentation: Development and Use of a Framework to Define Fundamental Competencies for Biological Experimentation 1.1 Scientific Rigor in Experimentation Is Integral to Trust in Science 1.2 How Do Competent Life Scientists Do Experimentation? 1.2.1 Articulation of Competency Statements 1.2.2 Validity Evidence for Refining the Competency Statements 1.3 The ACE-Bio Competencies for Biological Experimentation 1.4 Practical Use of the ACE-Bio Competencies as a Framework References Chapter 2: Using Data to Identify Anticipated Learning Outcomes for New and Existing Curricula 2.1 A Case for Data-Driven Curriculum Development 2.2 Expert Sources as Contexts for Identifying ALOs for New and Existing Curricula 2.3 Useful Frameworks for Identifying Evidence-Based ALOs 2.3.1 MAtCH Model: Identifying Competencies Related to Experimentation 2.3.2 Conceptual-Reasoning-Mode (CRM) Model: Identifying Competencies Related to Concepts and Representations 2.4 Reasons for and Examples of How to Use Data Sources in Curriculum Development 2.4.1 Interviews 2.4.2 Case 1 Supporting Data: Primary Literature & Other Disciplinary Resources 2.4.2.1 Primary Literature 2.4.2.2 Learning Outcomes Defined by Other Disciplinary Resources 2.4.3 Case 2 Supporting Data: Curriculum Artifacts & Surveys 2.4.3.1 Curriculum Artifacts 2.4.3.2 Surveys 2.5 Conclusion References Chapter 3: ACE-Bio Experimentation Competencies Across the Biology Curriculum: When Should We Teach Different Competencies and Concepts? 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Methods 3.3 Results and Discussion 3.3.1 Sample 3.3.2 Competency Expectations of Introductory Students 3.3.3 Competency Expectations of Degree Students 3.3.4 Variation Between Concepts and Skills Within Competencies 3.3.4.1 Identify 3.3.4.2 Question 3.3.4.3 Plan 3.3.4.4 Conduct 3.3.4.5 Analyze 3.3.4.6 Conclude 3.3.4.7 Communicate 3.4 Conclusions and Recommendations 3.4.1 Recommendations for Instructors 3.4.2 Recommendations for Education Researchers 3.4.3 Discussion of Recommendations References Chapter 4: Integrating the Five Core Concepts of Biology into Course Syllabi to Advance Student Science Epistemology and Experimentation Skills 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Connections Between Concept-Based Knowledge and Experimentation Skills 4.3 Epistemology 4.3.1 Disciplinary Epistemology 4.3.2 Personal Epistemology 4.3.2.1 Beliefs Approach 4.3.2.2 Resources Approach 4.3.3 The Effect of Classroom’s Epistemic Climate on Student Learning – Social Practices 4.3.4 Assessment Tools for Biology Student Epistemology 4.3.4.1 The Colorado Learning Attitudes About Science Survey for Biology (CLASS-Bio) 4.3.4.2 Maryland’s Biology Expectations Survey (MBEX) 4.4 Student Epistemological Beliefs and Learning Biology with the 5 CCs: A Case Study 4.5 Designing Epistemic Learning Environments in the Classroom 4.6 Conclusion and Recommendations References Part II: Operationalizing and Planning: Designing Instruction to Promote Learning of Biological Experimentation Chapter 5: Backward Designing a Lab Course to Promote Authentic Research Experience According to Students’ Gains in Research Abilities 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Backward Design of a Lab Course 5.3 Assessment of Scientific Research Practices 5.4 Common Difficulties and Solutions 5.5 Conclusions References Chapter 6: Using the ACE-Bio Competencies Resource as a Course Planning Tool to Guide Students in Independent Research 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Course Context 6.3 Implementation 6.3.1 Syllabus 6.3.2 Assignments 6.4 Comparison of ACE-Bio Competencies with Other Resources 6.5 Discussion References Chapter 7: Experiments in Data Mining: Using Digitized Natural History Collections to Introduce Biology Students to Data Science 7.1 The Case for Integrating Data Mining into the Undergraduate Biology Curriculum 7.2 Digitized Natural History Collections as a Gateway to Big Biodiversity Data 7.3 Strategies for Integration of Data Mining into the Undergraduate Biology Curriculum 7.3.1 Data Mining Activities Targeting Specific Biology Concepts 7.3.2 Data Mining Activities Targeting Specific Biological Research Skills 7.3.3 Course-Based Undergraduate Research Experiences 7.4 Resources for Implementation 7.5 Example Module 7.6 Summary References Chapter 8: A Framework for Teaching and Learning Graphing in Undergraduate Biology 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Essential Features of Instructional Design and Their Application to Teaching Graphing 8.2.1 Learning Objectives 8.2.2 Assessment to Reveal Student Knowledge and Competence 8.3 Framework for Teaching Graphing in Undergraduate Biology 8.3.1 Activity Design 8.3.1.1 Engage with Real-Word, Messy Data 8.3.1.2 Encourage a Multi-step Data Construction and Interpretation Approach 8.3.2 Instructor Roles and Interactions 8.3.2.1 Intentional and Explicit Instruction 8.3.3 Student Behaviors 8.3.3.1 Collaborative and Social Practice 8.3.3.2 Evaluation and Reflection 8.4 Student Learning Graphing as Part of Inquiry and Experimentation 8.4.1 Case Study 1: Inquiry-Embedded Sustained Graphing Intervention in an Upper-Division Biology Course 8.4.1.1 Participants and Laboratory Context 8.4.1.2 Teaching Intervention Design 8.4.1.3 Data Collection and Analysis 8.4.1.4 Findings 8.4.1.5 Discussion 8.4.2 Case Study 2: Short-Term Graphing Unit in a Non-majors Course 8.4.2.1 Participants and Context 8.4.2.2 Unit Design 8.4.2.3 Data Collection and Analysis 8.4.2.4 Findings 8.4.2.5 Discussion 8.5 Conclusions and Implications for Instructors References Part III: Implementation and Student Engagement: Guiding Learners to Do Experiments and Use Representations in Biological Research Chapter 9: Teaching Undergraduate Students How to Identify a Gap in the Literature: Design of a Visual Map Assignment to Develop a Grant Proposal Research Question 9.1 Background 9.2 Methods 9.2.1 Educational Setting 9.2.2 The Assignment 9.2.2.1 Day One 9.2.2.2 Art Studio and Gallery Walk 9.2.2.3 Draft Pathway Map and Peer Review 9.2.2.4 Individual Student Meetings with Instructor 9.2.2.5 Final Pathway Map, Feedback and Grant Proposal Instructions 9.2.2.6 Primary Literature Discussions 9.2.2.7 Grant Proposal Draft, Peer Review and Individual Student Meetings with Instructor 9.2.2.8 Final Grant Proposal and Funding Meeting 9.3 Results 9.4 Discussion and Implications for Instructors 9.4.1 Implications for Instructors References Chapter 10: Virtual Microscope: Using Simulated Equipment to Teach Experimental Techniques and Processes 10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 Simulation-Based Education 10.1.2 Virtual Microscope as a Simulation Tool 10.2 Our Aim to Improve Science Education with Virtual Microscopy 10.2.1 FFyB-VM in a Cellular and Molecular Biology Class 10.3 Discussion 10.4 How to Design a Good Simulator 10.5 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Introductory Biology Students Engage in Guided Inquiry: Professional Practice Experiences Develop Their Scientific Process and Experimentation Competencies 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Using Understanding by Design Framework to Scaffold Inquiry-Based Laboratory Curriculum 11.3 Implementing the Guided-Inquiry Integrated with Professional Practices 11.3.1 Learning Plan 11.3.2 Desired Outcome 11.3.3 Evidence from Learning Assessments 11.4 Evidence for Learning Outcome Achievement 11.4.1 Research Proposals 11.4.2 Mock Peer-Review Panels 11.4.3 Experimentation 11.4.4 Laboratory Journals 11.5 Teachable Moments 11.6 Student Opinions About the Curriculum 11.7 Benefits and Challenges for Students 11.8 Considerations for Single-Instructor Introductory Biology Courses 11.8.1 Diverse Student Populations 11.8.2 Implementing the Curriculum 11.8.3 Recommendations for Engaging Students in Experimentation References Chapter 12: Feedback and Discourse as a Critical Skill for the Development of Experimentation Competencies 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Background 12.3 Curriculum Design, Implementation, and Evidence 12.3.1 Week 1: Student Meet Research Team; Instructors Introduce Topic/Model System; Students Practice Data Collection 12.3.2 Week 2: Group Informal Feedback Presentations with Q & A 12.3.3 Week 3: Paper/Poster Peer Review; Pilot Studies & Data Collection 12.3.4 Week 4: Research Team-Instructor Consultations; Data Analysis and Interpretation Feedback Presentations 12.3.5 Week 5: Formal Group Presentation; One-on-One Conferences Between Instructor and Student 12.3.6 Competencies and Feedback as Emphasized in Subsequent Semesters 12.4 Implications 12.4.1 Intellectual Confidence and Ownership 12.4.2 Equity and Collaboration 12.4.3 Learning Mindset 12.4.4 Economics of Feedback 12.5 Summary References Chapter 13: Engaging Students with Experimentation in an Introductory Biology Laboratory Module 13.1 Introduction to Teaching Science Through Experimentation 13.2 Validated Assessments of Experimental Design 13.3 Considerations for Selecting an Experimental Design Assessment 13.3.1 Understand Student Background and Prior Knowledge 13.3.2 Identify the Kind of Data You Need 13.3.2.1 Assessments Can Be Open Ended or Multiple Choice 13.3.2.2 Pre and Post Experimental Design Assessments 13.3.2.3 Delivery of Assessments 13.3.3 Account for Instructor Teaching Experience and Research Considerations 13.3.4 The Scope of Your Course and/or Department 13.4 Description of a Zebrafish Experimental Design Lab Activity 13.5 Practical Design Considerations for the Zebrafish Experimental Design Lab Activity 13.5.1 Our Students’ Background and Prior Knowledge Drove the Lab Activity Design 13.5.2 Our Lab Activity Learning Outcomes Guided our Strategies to Engage Learners 13.5.3 Instructor Experience and Constraints Driving Learning Activity and Scope of Course in Alignment with Department Goals 13.6 Practical Design Considerations for the Zebrafish Experimental Design Lab Activity, and Alignment with the ACE-BIO Competencies (Pelaez et al., 2017; Chap. 1 in this Volume) 13.6.1 Prelab 13.6.2 Lab Session with Instructor 13.6.2.1 Student Lab Activity 1: Visualization Skills and “a Feeling for the Organism” 13.6.2.2 Student Lab Activity 2: Literature Search, Gap Analysis, and Creativity 13.6.2.3 Student Lab Activity 3 Experimental Design Thinking 13.6.3 Post Lab: Experimental Design Proposal Write Up 13.7 Results: Aligning the Zebrafish Experimental Design Lab with the ACE-Bio Competencies and Validated Rubrics 13.8 Conclusions – Selection of Experimental Design Assessments, and Other Practical Considerations, Can Inform Module Design and Assessment Design References Part IV: Assessment, Evaluation, and Grading What Students Learn About Biological Experimentation Chapter 14: Comparison of Published Assessments of Biological Experimentation as Mapped to the ACE-Bio Competence Areas 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Methods 14.3 Results and Discussion 14.3.1 Instruments for Assessing Competence Areas in Biological Experimentation 14.3.2 Mapping Assessments to Competence Areas 14.3.3 Mapping Assessments to Concepts 14.3.3.1 Gaps in Existing Assessments of Biological Experimentation 14.3.4 Gaps in ACE-Bio Framework of Competence Areas 14.4 Recommendations 14.4.1 Recommendations for Instructors 14.4.2 Recommendations for Education Researchers 14.5 Conclusions References Chapter 15: Research Across the Curriculum Rubric (RAC-R): An Adaptable Rubric for the Evaluation of Journal Article Style Lab Reports 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Development of Research Across Curriculum Rubric (RAC-R) 15.2.1 Articulating Departmental and Student Needs 15.2.2 Development of an Assessment at an ACE-Bio Workshop 15.2.3 Feedback from Departmental Faculty and Revision 15.3 Research Across Curriculum Rubric (RAC-R) 15.4 Adapting Research Across Curriculum Rubric (RAC-R) 15.4.1 Pilot Utilization in Freshman Level Molecular Genetics Course 15.4.2 Pilot Utilization in Senior Capstone Course 15.4.3 Proposed Adaptations of RAC-R 15.5 Discussion References Chapter 16: Assessing Undergraduate Research, a High Impact Practice: Using Aligned Outcomes to Detail Student Achievement to Multiple Stakeholders 16.1 Introduction 16.2 The Process 16.2.1 Identifying Stakeholders 16.2.2 Aligning the Outcomes 16.2.3 Defining the Evidence 16.2.4 Selecting the Artifacts 16.2.5 Scoring and Reporting 16.3 The Results 16.3.1 Aligning Outcomes 16.3.2 Defining the Evidence 16.3.3 Scoring and Reporting 16.4 Extending the Project 16.4.1 Using ACE-Bio Competencies 16.5 Discussion References Chapter 17: Assessment of Evidentiary Reasoning in Undergraduate Biology: A Lit Review and Application of the Conceptual Analysis of Disciplinary Evidence (CADE) Framework 17.1 Introduction 17.1.1 Assessment Triangle 17.1.2 The CADE Framework 17.1.3 Research Goals 17.2 Published Assessments Target Reasoning About Evidence 17.2.1 Literature Review 17.2.1.1 Search Procedure 17.2.1.2 Screening the Search List 17.2.2 Coding 17.2.2.1 Data Analysis Method 17.2.2.2 Data Analysis Examples 17.2.3 Findings from a Review of Published Assessments 17.2.3.1 What Assessments Are Being Used to Reveal Evidentiary Reasoning Difficulties Among Students? 17.2.3.2 What Assessment Gaps Remain for Development of New and Useful Assessments? 17.3 Assessment Gaps Addressed with CADE-Informed Test Questions 17.3.1 Design of the Assessments 17.3.2 Participants 17.3.3 Addressing Assessment Gaps to Reveal Students’ Difficulties with Evidentiary Reasoning About Evolutionary Trees 17.3.3.1 Assessment Items Informed by CADE 17.3.3.2 Expert Answers for Whale and Echidna Questions 17.3.4 Findings from Typical Examples of Students’ Answers to the Whale and Echidna Questions 17.3.4.1 The Assessments Probed Evidentiary Reasoning with Disciplinary Knowledge Linked to Epistemic Considerations 17.3.4.2 Some Responses Described Disciplinary Knowledge But Failed to Link to Epistemic Reasoning About the Relevance or Quality of Evidence 17.3.4.3 Student Answer Examples Discuss Convergent Evidence That Could Support or Raise Questions About the Strength of an Inference 17.3.4.4 Some Responses Failed to Use Appropriate Disciplinary Knowledge to Inform a Hypothesis or Research Goal 17.3.4.5 The Assessments Probed Evidentiary Reasoning About Whether Alternative Model Had Been Considered 17.4 Summary and Discussion 17.5 Conclusions References Part V: Complementary Frameworks for Guiding Students’ Experimentation Practice Chapter 18: Hybrid Labs: How Students Use Computer Models to Motivate and Make Meaning from Experiments 18.1 Introduction 18.1.1 Challenges Arising from Experimentation in Isolation 18.1.1.1 Motivating Experimental Design 18.1.1.2 Making Meaning of Experimental Results 18.1.2 Coupling Computational Modeling and Experimentation in Scientific Practice 18.2 Design of Hybrid Labs 18.2.1 Project Context 18.2.2 An Example Hybrid Lab: Mutation Rate Unit 18.2.2.1 The Phenomenon 18.2.2.2 Experimental System 18.2.2.3 Computational Model 18.2.2.4 Activity Structure 18.2.2.5 Instruction and Assessment 18.3 Students’ Scientific Practice in Hybrid Labs 18.3.1 Example 1: Attending to Time in Simulation and Experiment 18.3.1.1 An Experimental Design Motivated by Questions About Time 18.3.1.2 Comparing Model and Experiment to Make Meaning and Ask New Questions 18.3.2 Example 2: Questioning the Nature of “Benefit” 18.3.2.1 A Question Arises from a Comparison of “Benefit” in Model and Experiment 18.3.2.2 Using the Computational Model to Expand on and Rethink the Experiment 18.4 Conclusions and Implications for Instructors References Chapter 19: Electronic Laboratory Notebook Use Supports Good Experimental Practice and Facilitates Data Sharing, Archiving and Analysis 19.1 Introduction and Background 19.2 Electronic Laboratory Notebooks 19.3 Advantages in the Teaching Laboratory 19.4 Practicing Professional Practices 19.5 Templates and Frameworks 19.6 Facilitation of Data Sharing and Archiving 19.7 Concerns or Barriers 19.8 What Follows 19.9 Organization, Planning, Data Curation and Entry 19.9.1 Experiment: What Method Can We Use to Obtain the Largest Number of CFU’s from Our Soil Samples? 19.9.2 Example Checklist for Lab Notebook Entries (Used with Permission) 19.10 Examples of Student Entries 19.11 Data Sharing and Archiving 19.12 Other Options 19.13 Electronic Laboratory Notebooks and ACE-Bio Competencies: Implications for Instructors References Chapter 20: Growing Innovation and Collaboration Through Assessment and Feedback: A Toolkit for Assessing and Developing Students’ Soft Skills in Biological Experimentation 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Assessment Tools 20.3 Feedback and Guided Reflection 20.4 The Innovation Toolkit at Work 20.4.1 Timeline and Methodology of Assessment 20.4.2 Pilot Assessment Results 20.4.3 Pilot Observations 20.5 Implications of the Toolkit 20.5.1 Toolkit Use for Assessment of Essential Skills in Biological Experimentation 20.5.2 Toolkit Use in Broad, Interdisciplinary Situations 20.6 Future Directions and Overall Importance References Chapter 21: Biological Reasoning According to Members of the Faculty Developer Network for Undergraduate Biology Education: Insights from the Conceptual Analysis of Disciplinary Evidence (CADE) Framework 21.1 Background: The Purpose of Undergraduate Biology Education 21.2 The Conceptual Analysis of Disciplinary Evidence (CADE) Framework 21.3 The Faculty Developer Network for Undergraduate Biology Education (FDN-UBE) 21.4 Research Method 21.4.1 Interview Transcription and Coding Methodology 21.4.2 Selection of FDN-UBE Volunteers for Interviews 21.5 Findings from the Online Survey of FDN-UBE Members 21.6 Findings from Interviews Reveal Features of Their Biology Faculty Professional Development Interests and Expertise 21.6.1 Biology Professional Developers Are Visionaries/Missionaries 21.6.2 The Unconventional Pathways of Biology Faculty Professional Developers Remain Focused on Biology as a Discipline 21.6.3 Knowledge Sources Include But Go Beyond the Professional Development Literature to Include Oral Traditions 21.7 Interview Findings Through the Conceptual Analysis of Disciplinary Evidence (CADE) Lens 21.7.1 Theory => Evidence Relationship: A Knowledge Foundation for Scientific Research 21.7.1.1 A Focus on Conceptual Understanding 21.7.1.2 Use of Cutting-Edge Research Examples 21.7.2 Evidence Data Relationship: Practice Analysis with Authentic Data 21.7.2.1 Advanced Research Techniques for Collecting Data 21.7.2.2 Basic Mathematical Skills for Analyzing Data 21.7.3 Evidence => Theory Relationship: Sufficiency of Interpretations 21.7.4 Social Dimensions: Communication of Evidence to the Public 21.8 Discussion and Implications for Future Direction References Part VI: Approaches to Biological Experimentation Instruction of Relevance to Biology Education Programs in General Chapter 22: Teaching Successful Student Collaboration Within the Context of Biological Experimentation 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Guiding Principles for Collaboration 22.3 Narrative and Analysis 22.3.1 NARRATIVE 1: Collaboration on Day One 22.3.2 ANALYSIS 1: The First Day of Class 22.3.2.1 Challenge: Setting the Stage for a Long-Term Collaboration 22.3.2.2 Challenge: Forming Groups 22.3.3 NARRATIVE 2: Identifying a Research Question 22.3.4 ANALYSIS 2: Leveraging the Assets of the Group 22.3.4.1 Challenge: Communication of the Desired Outcome 22.3.4.2 Challenge: Engaging the Community 22.3.4.3 Challenge: Establishing Group Norms to Incorporate the Voices of all Collaborators 22.3.5 NARRATIVE 3: Conducting the Experiment and Analyzing Data 22.3.6 ANALYSIS 3: Implementing Clear Communication Strategies 22.3.6.1 Challenge: Establishing Practices for Communication 22.3.6.2 Challenge: Group Trust 22.3.6.3 Challenge: Group Roles and Responsibilities 22.3.7 NARRATIVE 4: Drawing Conclusions 22.3.8 ANALYSIS 4: Addressing Group Issues 22.3.8.1 Challenge: An Inclusive Group Dynamic 22.3.8.2 Challenge: Navigating Scheduling Conflicts 22.3.8.3 Challenge: Preparing TAs to Facilitate Inclusive Collaboration 22.3.8.4 Challenge: Communication to the Public 22.3.9 NARRATIVE 5: The Final Presentation 22.3.10 ANALYSIS 5: Improving the Collaboration Process 22.3.10.1 Challenge: Normalizing and Addressing Research Difficulties 22.3.10.2 Challenge: Time Management 22.3.10.3 Challenge: Assessing Gains in Students’ Ability to Collaborate 22.4 Conclusions & Recommendations References Chapter 23: Biochemistry and Art: Incorporating Drawings, Paintings, Music, and Media into Teaching Biological Science 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Drawing 23.3 Painting 23.4 Music 23.5 Media 23.6 Conclusion and Implications for Instructors References Chapter 24: Strategies for Targeting the Learning of Complex Skills Like Experimentation to Different Student Levels: The Intermediate Constraint Hypothesis 24.1 Introduction 24.2 What Is Constraint? 24.3 Constrained Simulated Experiments 24.4 Changing Constraint, Feedback, and Scaffolding in a Virtual Lab to Improve Learning 24.5 Constraint Can Affect Student Learning 24.6 Skilled Students May Be Better Challenged in Lower Constraint Activities 24.7 Quantifying Constraint as a Way of Informing Designs 24.8 The Interplay of Constraint, Feedback, and Scaffolding 24.9 The Intermediate Constraint Hypothesis: Tuning Constraint to Match the Student 24.10 Considering Degree of Constraint Can Improve Summative Assessment of Skills 24.11 Conclusion and Implications for Instructors 24.12 Implications for Instructors References Chapter 25: Implementing Innovations in Undergraduate Biology Experimentation Education 25.1 Introduction 25.2 The Process of Innovative Change: Consider the Potential Influence of Contextual Factors on Innovative Change 25.3 Establishing Feasibility and Tolerance: Contextual Forces Supporting and Opposing the Innovation 25.4 Potential Strategies for Implementing an Innovation: Examples References Index