Forensic Document Examination in the 21st Century

Description

Forensic Document Examination in the 21st Century covers the latest technology and techniques providing a complete resource on contemporary issues and methods in forensic document examination. Forensic document examiners provide their findings as expert testimony in court. Due to rapid changes in technology, including digital documents, printing and photocopying capabilities, and more, there is a great need for this up-to-date reference. The examination of documents can include comparison of handwriting or hand-printing; detection of alterations or photocopier and computer manipulation; restoration or decipherment of erased and obliterated writing; visualization of latent impressions; the identification of printing processes; and differentiation of inks. Computer-generated documents are prevalent, and electronically-captured signatures are becoming more widespread, meaning the knowledge of advances in technology and adoption of new validated techniques and methods of document examination are crucial to the reliability of forensic opinions. Forensic Document Examination in the 21st Century includes the latest research on the subject and with contributions from leading experts on their various areas of expertise. The book will be a welcome addition to the literature and support the foundational basis for methods and procedures for use it expert testimony in court, serving as a resource for forensic document examiners, trainees, and those in the criminal and legal communities who use the services of expert document examiners and witnesses Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents Preface Editors Contributors Section I: Modern Standards, 1 Forensic Document Examiner Training 1.1 Skills and Aptitude of the Trainee 1.2 Foundation of Training 1.3 Components of a Training Plan 1.4 Conclusion References 2 Standards in Forensic Document Examination 3 The Logical Approach to Evidence Evaluation 3.1 Introduction 3.2 History 3.3 Inference and Reasoning 3.4 Key Concepts 3.5 Elements of the Logical Approach Specific to FDE Work 3.5.1 Consider the Framework 3.5.2 Set the Propositions 3.5.3 Declare Expectations 3.5.4 Conduct the Examination 3.5.5 Evaluate Findings in Terms of the Propositions 3.5.6 Determine the Opinion 3.6 Sub-Propositions and Multiple Propositions 3.7 Challenges and Concerns 3.8 Conclusion References 4 Cognitive Bias and Handwriting Examination: Concepts, Current Knowledge, and Future Practice 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Cognitive Organization of Conceptual Knowledge 4.3 Schemas and Expertise 4.4 Human Cognition: Cognitive Misers and Motivated Tacticians 4.5 Confirmation Bias 4.6 Contextual Bias 4.7 Cognitive Human Factors Research: Current Knowledge and Future Directions for Forensic Document Examination Studies 4.7.1 Direct Priming 4.7.2 The Representative Heuristic 4.8 Summary 4.8.1 Confirmation Bias 4.8.2 Reducing the Impact of Extraneous and Potentially Biasing Information References 5 Forensic Intelligence 6 Expert Testimony: The Path to the Jury 6.1 Structure of the Court System 6.2 Overview of Civil Litigation 6.3 Appellate Courts 6.4 Overview of Criminal Litigation 6.5 Arbitration 6.6 Rules Relating to Expert Testimony – The Expert Report 6.7 The Judge’s Role in the Admissibility of Expert Testimony 6.8 Court Opinions 6.9 The Daubert Trilogy 6.10 Conclusion Section II: Handwriting Topics and Research 7 Development of Habitual Handwriting Characteristics in Elementary School Students 7.1 Early Findings on Handwriting Development 7.2 Development of Handwriting Skill 7.3 Development of Non-class Characteristic Handwriting Habits Over Time 7.3.1 First Approach: Analysis of the Word and 7.3.2 Second Approach: Analysis of the Full Sample 7.3.3 Study Findings 7.4 Conclusions Reference 8 Evaluation of Handwriting Evidence 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Unnatural Handwriting 8.2.1 Handwriting Production 8.2.2 FDE Skill in Distinguishing between Disguise and Simulation 8.2.3 Disguise Behavior in Signatures 8.2.4 Simulation Behavior in Signatures 8.2.5 Disguise Behavior in Handwritten Text 8.2.6 Simulation Behavior in Handwritten Text 8.2.7 Success of Simulation 8.3 Other Internal or External Factors 8.4 Complexity of Writing 8.5 Foreign Scripts and Legibility of Writing 8.6 Amount of Writing 8.7 Non-Original Documents 8.8 Nature of Known Writing References 9 Forensic Hand-Printing Examination 9.1 Learning to Hand-Print 9.2 Hand-Printing Examination 9.3 History of Hand-Printing Identification 9.4 Reliability of FDE Examinations of Hand-Printing References 10 Handwriting Complexity 10.1 Foundation for Complexity in Handwriting Examination 10.2 Complexity Theory in Forensic Document Examination 10.3 Complexity Models 10.4 Complexity and Extended Handwriting 10.5 Factors Related to Complexity 10.6 Conclusion References 11 Examination of Foreign-Influenced Handwriting 11.1 Foreign-Influenced Handwriting 11.2 Supporting Basis for FDEs to Examine Foreign Handwriting Cases 11.3 Handling Foreign Handwriting Cases 11.4 Foreign-Influenced Writing Resources 11.5 Conclusion References 12 Frequency of Occurrence Proportions in Handwriting 12.1 What Is Frequency Occurrence? 12.2 Historical Application 12.3 Database Feature Selection 12.4 Population Sampling 12.5 Frequency of Occurrence Proportions and Forensic Document Examination 12.6 Examination Limitations 12.7 Use in Court 12.8 Future Expansion References 13 Examination and Comparison of Handwriting by Forensic Document Examiners Compared to Laypersons 13.1 Research into the Ability to Differentiate Homogeneous Writing Samples 13.1.1 The Palmer Method of Handwriting 13.1.2 Writing Specimen Collection 13.1.3 Examination by the FDE Group 13.1.3.1 Method of Scoring and Accuracy Scores for the FDE Group 13.1.4 Examination of Specimens by the Laypersons Group 13.1.5 Comparison of Scores by FDEs to Those of Laypersons 13.2 Comparison of Study Results 13.3 Conclusion References Section III: Applications of Technology in Forensic Document Examination 14 Forensic Analysis of Handwritten Electronic Signatures 14.1 Where Are Electronic Signatures Found and Why Is It Important to Be able to Authenticate Them? 14.2 History of Electronic Signature Laws 14.3 Dynamic Signature Research 14.4 Tablets and Capture Devices 14.5 What Is Gained and What Is Lost in the Analysis of a Dynamic Signature? 14.6 Electronic Signature Analysis in Casework 14.7 Electronic Signature Analysis in Court 14.8 Looking Forward References 15 Indentation Development and Visualization 15.1 Sources of Indentation 15.2 History of Development Methods 15.3 Oblique (Raking) Illumination 15.4 Electrostatic Detection Device (EDD) 15.4.1 Pre-Handling of Documents 15.4.2 Charging 15.4.3 Toner Application 15.4.4 Cascade Development 15.4.5 Brush or Applicator Development 15.4.6 Aerosol or Cloud Development 15.4.7 Recording Results 15.4.8 Indentation Test Sheets or Strips 15.4.9 Why Does It Work? 15.5 Indentation Development for Printer/Paper Handling Marks 15.6 Overlays of EDD Lifts and Image Enhancement 15.7 Fracture Match Comparisons 15.8 Sequencing of Developed EDD Impressions and Visible Writing 15.8.1 Non-Ballpoint Pens and EDD Impressions 15.8.2 Ballpoint Pens and EDD Impressions 15.9 Other Techniques for Indentation Development 15.10 Thermal Paper 15.11 Conclusion References 16 Examination of Cut, Torn, Shredded, and Perforated Documents 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Reassembly Methods 16.2.1 Preliminary Assessment 16.2.2 Sorting 16.2.3 Associating the Pieces 16.2.4 Positive Fracture Matching 16.2.5 Assembling the Pieces 16.2.6 Finishing 16.3 Specific Types of Document Disassembly 16.3.1 Cut Documents 16.3.1.1 Matching 16.3.2 Torn Documents 16.3.2.1 Associating/Assembling 16.3.3 Perforated Documents 16.3.3.1 Paper Safety Matches 16.3.4 Shredded Documents 16.3.4.1 Shred direction 16.3.4.2 Types of Shredded Documents (Paper vs. Plastic) 16.3.4.3 Reassembly 16.3.4.4 Computer-Aided Assembly 16.3.4.5 Finishing the Project 16.4 Conclusion References 17 Electrophotography 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Steps of the Electrophotographic Process 17.3 Common Questions for Electrophotography Output 17.4 Copy Platen and Optical System Defects 17.5 Spatially-Periodic Defects 17.6 Obtaining Specimen Output from Electrophotographic Devices 17.7 Toner Composition 17.8 Banding in Electrophotography 17.9 Conclusion References 18 Typography 18.1 Introduction 18.2 History of Typefaces 18.3 Typographic Terminology 18.4 Typewriters 18.5 Typeface Classification 18.6 Word Processors, Computers, and Desktop Publishing 18.7 Typography Applied to Document Examination 18.8 Software to Design/Change Typeface 18.9 Sources of Typefaces 18.10 Point Sizes and Definition 18.11 Typography Rulers 18.12 Spacing of Type 18.13 Weight of Typeface 18.14 Typography in Casework: An Example 18.15 Summary References 19 Computer Generated Documents 19.1 Computer Files 19.1.1 Software and Printer Drivers 19.1.2 Computer Font Files 19.1.3 Image Files 19.1.4 Compression 19.1.4.1 Uncompressed Image Files 19.1.4.2 Lossless Compressed Image Files 19.1.4.3 Lossy Compressed Image Files 19.2 Color Models, Spaces, and Depth 19.2.1 Color Model 19.2.2 Color Space 19.2.3 Color Gamut 19.2.4 Digital Imaging in FDE: Cameras 19.2.5 Digital Imaging in FDE: Scanners 19.3 Hardcopy Printing Devices 19.3.1 Impact Printers 19.3.2 Nonimpact Printers 19.4 Data Encoding of Physical Media 19.4.1 OCR-A and -B 19.4.2 Magnetic Stripe 19.4.3 Barcodes 19.4.5 Counterfeit Protection System (CPS) 19.4.6 Eurion Constellation and Anti-Counterfeiting Printing 19.5 Conclusion References 20 Radiography 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Ionizing Radiation Types 20.3 Basic Atomic Structure 20.4 X-Rays 20.5 Gamma Rays (ɣ-Rays) 20.6 Neutron Radiography 20.7 Radiography Applied to Document Examination 20.8 Summary References 21 Digital Examination Techniques and Considerations 21.1 Hardware and Software Considerations 21.1.1 Scanners 21.1.2 Digital Photography 21.1.3 Equipment 21.2 Direct Examinations 21.2.1 Background Color Removal 21.2.2 Ink Differentiation 21.2.3 Obliterated Writing 21.2.4 Digital Examination of Charred Documents 21.2.5 Deciphering Carbon Paper 21.3 Comparative Examinations 21.3.1 Overlays and Grids 21.3.1.1 Changing Layer Opacity 21.3.1.2 Multiply Layer Blending Mode 21.3.1.3 Layer Transparency 21.3.2 Tracings and Copied Signatures 21.3.3 Typewriting 21.3.4 Impression Comparisons 21.3.4.1 Mask Embossing and Interfering Impressions 21.3.4.2 Recover Missing Pages 21.3.4.3 Non-Contemporaneous Entries 21.3.5 Stamped Impression Comparisons 21.3.6 Photocopier/Printer Comparisons 21.3.7 Altered Documents 21.4 Demonstratives 21.4.1 Live Demonstrations 21.5 Conclusion References 22 Computational Analysis of Documents 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Machine Learning 22.2.1 Visualizations 22.2.2 Predictive Coding 22.2.3 Deep Learning and Neural Networks 22.2.4 Uses and Limitations 22.3 Organizations, Conferences, and Meetings 22.4 Competitions and Test Datasets 22.5 Software 22.6 Optical Character Recognition 22.6.1 OCR Software Applications 22.7 Conclusion References Index