Motivation : biological, psychological, and environmental

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Cover Title Copyright Dedication Contents Preface Acknowledgments 1 Introduction to Motivation and Emotion Meaning of Motivation To Be Moved into Action Purpose of a Motivation Psychology Motivation as Anticipation of the Future Aspects of Motivation as a Journey Auxiliary Assumptions about Motivation Section Recap Sources of Motivation Internal Sources External Sources Linking Biological, Psychological, and Environmental Variables The Past as a Source of Motivation Combined Internal and External Sources Motivate Behavior Emotions Section Recap Study of Motivation and Emotion Research in Motivation Research in Emotion Sources and Scope of Motivation Section Recap Glossary References 2 The History of Motivation and Emotion Brief History of Motivation Aristotle’s Theory Hedonism Evolution and Motivation Unconscious Motivation Early Views on Drives, Needs, and Incentives Early Views that Drives and Incentives Interact to Motivate Behavior Section Recap Brief History of Emotion Emotion as Subjective Feeling Basic Emotions Emotion as Motive for Action and Thought Accompaniments of Emotion Section Recap Glossary References 3 Evolutionary Antecedents of Motivation Evolutionary Perspective on Motivation Evolutionary History and Personal History Evolutionary Psychology Section Recap Universal Motives for Relationships and Sex Motivation for Relationships Good Genes and Bad Genes Hypotheses Long-Term Mate Selection Biosocial Theory Guarding Relationships Section Recap Fear, Food Preferences, and Music as Universal Motives Fear as a Universal Motive Preferences and Liking for Foods Universal Appeal of Music Section Recap Glossary References 4 Addictions and Addictive Behaviors Drugs of Abuse and Addiction Aspects of Addiction Specifics of Drug Addiction From Experimentation to Addiction Section Recap The Addiction Process Psychological Theories of Drug Addiction Brain Correlates of Addiction Loss of Self-Control Role of Environment in Addiction via Conditioning Events that Lead to Drug Relapse Cognition and Addiction Section Recap Behavioral Addictions Exercise Addiction and Drug Addiction Opioids and Exercise-Induced Euphoria Gambling Addiction Internet Addiction Section Recap Glossary References 5 Homeostasis: Temperature, Thirst, Hunger, and Eating Internal Factors of Body Regulation Homeostasis and Allostasis Negative Feedback System Effects of Deviation from Set Point Thermoregulation Thirst and Drinking The Body’s Energy Requirements Energy Homeostasis Hunger Sensations Feedback Mechanisms for Satiety Dual Intervention Point Model Section Recap Food Characteristics and Eating Cephalic Responses Palatability and Amount of Food Sensory-Specific Satiety Food Preferences Section Recap Person Characteristics and Eating Boundary Model of Eating Release of Diet Restraint Anorexia Nervosa Section Recap Glossary References 6 Behavior, Arousal, and Affective Valence Arousal and Performance Categories of Arousal Sources of Arousal Arousal and Behavior Section Recap Theories about the Performance–Arousal Relationship Hull–Spence Drive Theory Cusp Catastrophe Mode [model] Arousal-Biased Competition Theory Memory Systems Anxiety Affects Cognitive Processing and Behavior Section Recap Arousal and Affective Valence Variation in Affective Valence Stimulus Complexity and Affective Valence Novelty and Incongruity in Music and Humor The Pleasure of Music Incongruity Resolution and Humor Section Recap Glossary References 7 Stress, Coping, and Health Relationship between Life Events and Stress Demands, Coping, and Stress Characteristics of Stressors Characteristics of Stress Stressor–Stress Relationship Section Recap Stressors Affect the Body Psychophysiological Disorders Sickness Behavior Section Recap Variables Moderating the Impact of Life Events Appraisal and Coping with Life Events and Stress Stressor Controllability Feedback Section Recap Glossary References 8 Psychological Needs and Motives Drives and Needs as Internal Sources of Motivation Interaction of Push and Pull Motivation Physiological Needs, Drives, and Psychological Needs Motivation by Psychological Needs Characteristics of Psychological Needs Demonstrating that Psychological Needs Motivate Behavior Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Revised Section Recap Some Important Psychological Needs Achievement Motivation Factors that Affect Achievement Motivation Needs for Autonomy and Competence Need to Affiliate/Belong Need for Closure and Need for Cognition Need for Meaning Need for Power Need for Self-Esteem Section Recap Glossary References 9 Personality and Motivation Personality Associated with Motivation Personality Traits as Categories or Causes of Behavior Personality Traits for Motivation Biological Reality of Traits Section Recap Personality Traits Affect Motivation Personality and Environment Cybernetic Big Five Theory Effects of Openness-to-Experience on Motivation Effects of Extraversion on Motivation Effects of Neuroticism on Motivation Effects of Conscientiousness on Motivation Effects of Agreeableness on Motivation Effects of Multiple Traits on Motivation Effects of Sensation-Seeking on Motivation Section Recap Glossary References 10 Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation and Incentive Value Reinforcers and Punishers versus Incentives Objective and Subjective Incentive Value Positive and Negative Incentives Section Recap Factors that Affect Incentive Value Amount Internal States Determine Incentive Value Rate of Reinforcement Contrast Effects Temporal Motivation Theory Section Recap Intrinsic Motivation Differences between Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Purpose of Intrinsically Motivated Behavior Interaction between Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Motivational Orientation Section Recap Glossary References 11 Goal Motivation Origins of Goals From Possible End-States to Goals Sources of Goals Section Recap Goal Characteristics and Expectations Motivating Characteristics of Goals Expectancy Value Theory and Expected Utility Theory Framing Prospect Theory Section Recap Goal Commitment, Planning, and Achievement Committing to a Goal Planning to Achieve a Goal Progress toward Goal Achievement Activating Goal Achievement Behavior Goal Achievement and Goal Failure Goal Achievement without Awareness Section Recap Glossary References 12 Economics of Motivation Motivation Costs and Resources Costs of Motivated Behavior Effort Discounting Motivation Resources Section Recap Function of Fatigue Self-Control Strength Fatigue Motivates Alternative Behaviors Section Recap Spending Motivation Resources Demand Law Elasticity Elasticity and the Substitution Effect Section Recap Motivation toward Least Effort Early Views on Effort and Motivation Choices Based on Least Effort Behavior and Thought Based on Least Effort Section Recap Glossary References 13 Emotions and Moods Characteristics and Categories of Emotions What Is an Emotion? Methods for Uncovering Basic Emotions Characteristics of Emotion Intensity and Duration of Emotions Section Recap The Function of Arousal James–Lange Theory Cognitive Arousal Theory Cannon’s Theory of Arousal Arousal Helps Construct an Emotion Section Recap Moods Differences between Moods and Emotions Measurement of Moods Factors that Affect Mood Section Recap Glossary References 14 Emotions as Motives Appraisal of the Emotion Event Characteristics of the Emotion-Inducing Event Event–Appraisal–Emotion Sequence The Appraisal Process Section Recap Emotions Motivate Facial Expressions Expression–Feeling Link Innateness of Facial Expression of Emotion Function of Facial Expression Section Recap The Motivating Function of Emotions Emotions as Motives for Behavior Emotions as Motives for Cognitive Activity Motivational Nature of Positive Emotions Section Recap Glossary References Index