A History Of Mechanical Engineering

Description

This book explores the history of mechanical engineering since the Bronze Age. Focusing on machinery inventions and the development of mechanical technology, it also discusses the machinery industry and modern mechanical education. The evolution of machinery is divided into three stages: Ancient (before the European Renaissance), Modern (mainly including the two Industrial Revolutions) and Contemporary (since the Revolution in Physics, especially post Second World War). The book not only clarifies the development of mechanical engineering, but also reveals the driving forces behind it – e.g. the economy, national defense and human scientific research activities – to highlight the links between technology and society; mechanical engineering and the natural sciences; and mechanical engineering and related technological areas. Though mainly intended as a textbook or supplemental reading for graduate students, the book also offers a unique resource for researchers and engineers in mechanical engineering who wish to broaden their horizons. Contents......Page 5 1 Introduction......Page 15 1.1.1 Ancient Era......Page 16 1.1.3 Contemporary Era......Page 17 1.2 Key Relations in History of Mechanical Engineering......Page 18 1.2.2 Driving Forces Behind Science and Technology......Page 19 1.2.4 Mechanical Engineering and Natural Science......Page 21 1.2.5 Mechanical Engineering and Related Technological Fields......Page 22 1.3 Technological Revolution and Industrial Revolution......Page 23 References......Page 24 2.1.1 Three Stages and Three Regions......Page 25 2.1.2 The Dawning of Civilization: West Asia and Egypt......Page 26 2.1.3 Brilliance and Straggle of Ancient China......Page 27 2.1.4 Twists and Turns in Europe’s Development......Page 31 2.2 Various Ancient Machines......Page 33 2.2.1 Simple Machines......Page 34 2.2.2 Agricultural Machines......Page 35 2.2.2.2 Water-Lifting Devices......Page 36 2.2.2.3 Mills and the Winnow......Page 40 2.2.3 Blowers and Blast Technology......Page 42 2.2.4 Boats and Ships......Page 45 2.2.5 Vehicles......Page 46 2.2.6.1 Thread Spinners......Page 49 2.2.6.2 Looms......Page 50 2.2.7 Timers and Astronomical Instruments......Page 51 2.2.7.1 Antikythera Mechanism......Page 52 2.2.7.2 Armillary Spheres......Page 53 2.2.7.3 Astronomical Clock Towers......Page 54 2.2.8 Lifting Machines......Page 55 2.2.9 Weapons......Page 56 2.2.10.1 Entertainment Machines by Hero......Page 59 2.2.11 Mechanisms and Transmissions......Page 61 2.2.12 Power for Ancient Machines......Page 63 2.3.1 Casting......Page 64 2.3.2 Forging and Other Press Processing......Page 68 2.3.3 Welding......Page 70 2.3.4 Machining......Page 71 2.3.5 Heat Treatment......Page 73 2.4 Discussion on Ancient Machines......Page 74 References......Page 75 3.1.1 Emergence of Capitalist Mode of Production......Page 79 3.1.2 Great Discoveries of Geography......Page 80 3.1.4 Religious Reform (the Reformation)......Page 81 3.1.6 Bourgeois Revolutions......Page 82 3.2.1 Leonardo da Vinci......Page 83 3.2.2.2 Progresses of Mechanics Related to Machines......Page 84 3.2.3 Mechanical Technology Before the Industrial Revolution......Page 85 3.2.3.1 Clocks, Watches and Watch Making Industry......Page 86 3.2.3.2 Early Steam Engines......Page 88 3.2.3.3 Materials for Machines......Page 89 3.2.3.5 Textile Machines......Page 91 3.2.3.6 Printing and Printing Machines......Page 92 3.2.3.7 Construction Machines......Page 93 3.2.3.8 Artillery......Page 95 3.2.3.10 Information Machines......Page 96 3.3.1 Breakthrough in Astronomy and Liberation of Scientific Spirit......Page 97 3.3.2 Theoretical Background......Page 99 3.3.3 Establishment of Classical Mechanics......Page 101 3.3.4.1 Scope of Application of Classical Mechanics......Page 102 3.4 Calculus and Differential Equations......Page 104 3.4.2 Theory of Differential Equation......Page 105 References......Page 107 4.1.1.1 Political Background......Page 109 4.1.1.2 Production Background......Page 110 4.1.1.3 Scientific Background......Page 111 4.1.2 Introduction to First Industrial Revolution......Page 112 4.2.2 Watt’s Contributions......Page 113 4.2.2.5 The Centrifugal Governor......Page 115 4.2.3 Watt: A Creative Genius......Page 116 4.2.4 Epochal Significance......Page 117 4.2.5 Railway Age......Page 118 4.2.6 Steam Ships......Page 119 4.2.7 Significance of Transportation Revolution......Page 120 4.3.1 Wide Application of Steam Power......Page 121 4.3.2 Textile and Sewing Machines......Page 123 4.3.2.3 Sewing Machines......Page 124 4.3.2.4 Jacquard Loom......Page 125 4.3.3.2 Tunneling Boring Machine......Page 126 4.3.3.5 Lift......Page 127 4.3.3.6 Mining Machines......Page 128 4.3.4.3 The Cotton Gin......Page 129 4.3.5 Refrigeration Machines......Page 130 4.3.6.1 Development of Pumps......Page 131 4.3.6.3 Compressors......Page 132 4.3.7.2 Submarines......Page 133 4.3.7.3 Guns......Page 134 4.3.8.2 Paper-Making Machine and Printing Machine......Page 135 4.3.8.3 The Mechanical Computer......Page 136 4.4.1 Status of Machining in 18th Century......Page 138 4.4.2.2 Boring Machine......Page 139 4.4.2.3 Screw Lathe......Page 140 4.4.2.4 Other Machine Tools......Page 142 4.4.3 Birth of Interchangeable Parts......Page 143 4.5 Perpetual Motion Machine......Page 145 References......Page 147 5.1.1.1 Background of Social Needs......Page 150 5.1.1.2 The Scientific Background......Page 151 5.1.1.3 The Political Background......Page 152 5.1.2.1 Electric Motor and Generator......Page 153 5.1.2.2 The Age of Electricity......Page 154 5.1.3 Era of Steel......Page 156 5.1.5.1 Science Ahead......Page 158 5.1.5.3 Rising of Industrialized Countries in the West......Page 159 5.2.1.2 Invention of the Gasoline Engine......Page 160 5.2.1.4 Significance of Internal Combustion Engine......Page 162 5.2.2 Invention and Early Development of Automobile......Page 163 5.2.3.1 Pioneers of Aircraft Research......Page 166 5.2.3.3 Outstanding Inventors......Page 167 5.2.3.4 Following Developments......Page 168 5.2.4.3 Locomotive Driven by Diesel Engine......Page 170 5.2.4.4 Bicycles and Motorcycles......Page 171 5.2.4.5 Elevators......Page 172 5.3.1.1 Steam Turbine......Page 173 5.3.1.2 Hydraulic Turbines......Page 175 5.3.1.3 Gas Turbines......Page 176 5.3.1.4 Jet Engines......Page 177 5.3.2.2 Crushers......Page 178 5.3.2.3 Processing Machinery......Page 180 5.3.3 Construction Machinery......Page 182 5.3.4.2 Compressors......Page 183 5.3.5.3 Film Camera and Projector......Page 184 5.3.6.2 Tanks......Page 186 5.3.6.3 Warships......Page 187 5.3.7.1 Mechanization in Agriculture......Page 188 5.4 Machine Manufacturing in 2nd Industrial Revolution......Page 189 5.4.1.2 Automatic Lathes......Page 190 5.4.1.3 Grinding Machines......Page 192 5.4.1.5 Gear Cutting Machine Tools......Page 193 5.4.1.6 Broaching Machine......Page 194 5.4.2 Tool Materials and Cutting Speed......Page 195 5.4.3 Progress in Metrology......Page 196 5.4.4 Taylor’s Scientific Management......Page 197 5.4.5 Ford’s Mass Production......Page 198 5.4.6 Standardization and Serialization......Page 200 5.5 Trends of Development of Machinery......Page 201 5.5.1.2 Internal Combustion Engines......Page 202 5.5.1.3 Steam Turbine Generator Units......Page 203 5.5.2 Precision......Page 204 5.5.4 Semi-automation......Page 205 References......Page 207 6.1.1 Calculus of Variations......Page 209 6.1.2 Differential Geometry......Page 210 6.1.3 Linear Algebra......Page 212 6.1.4 Probability Theory......Page 213 6.1.5 Graph Theory......Page 214 6.2 Further Progress of Mechanics......Page 215 6.2.1 Analytical Mechanics......Page 216 6.2.2 Elastic Mechanics......Page 217 6.2.3 Plastic Mechanics......Page 220 6.2.4 Mechanics of Materials......Page 221 6.2.5.1 Birth of Theory of Vibration......Page 222 6.2.5.2 Development of Linear Theory of Vibration......Page 223 6.2.5.3 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration......Page 225 6.2.6 Fluid Mechanics......Page 228 6.2.7 Relationship Between Mathematics and Mechanics......Page 229 References......Page 230 7.1 Birth of Mechanical Engineering Discipline......Page 231 7.1.1.2 The First College Course on Machine......Page 232 7.1.1.3 Mechanism: An Independent Subject......Page 233 7.1.2 Theoretical Kinematics in France......Page 234 7.1.3 Foundation of Institution of Mechanical Engineers......Page 235 7.2.1 German School and Russian School in Mechanism......Page 236 7.2.1.1 German School......Page 237 7.2.1.2 Russian-Soviet School......Page 239 7.2.2.1 Path Generation......Page 241 7.2.2.3 Theoretical Research......Page 243 7.2.3.1 Evolution......Page 244 7.2.3.2 Force Analysis......Page 245 7.2.3.3 Follower Motion Program......Page 246 7.2.3.4 Intermittent Motion Mechanism......Page 247 7.3 Mechanical Vibration Theory and Application......Page 248 7.4.1.1 Early Development......Page 251 7.4.1.3 Smoothening of Speed Fluctuation......Page 253 7.4.2.1 Balancing of Rigid Rotors......Page 254 7.4.2.2 Early Research on Rotor Dynamics......Page 255 7.4.2.3 Rotor-Bearing System Dynamics......Page 256 7.4.3 Balancing of Mechanism......Page 257 7.5.1.1 Gear Transmission......Page 259 7.5.1.2 Worm Gearing......Page 260 7.5.1.3 Belt and Chain Drive......Page 261 7.5.2 Hydraulic Transmission......Page 262 7.5.2.1 Early Development......Page 263 7.5.2.2 Large Scale Application......Page 264 7.5.2.3 Hydraulic Control......Page 265 7.6.1.2 Stage of Empirical Design......Page 266 7.6.2 Descriptive Geometry......Page 267 7.6.3 Independence of Machine Design......Page 268 7.6.4.1 Fatigue Failure......Page 269 7.6.4.3 Creep......Page 270 7.6.5.1 Gear Drives......Page 271 7.6.5.2 Shafts......Page 272 7.6.5.3 Rolling Bearings......Page 273 7.6.5.4 Sliding Bearings......Page 274 7.7.1 Introduction......Page 275 7.7.2 Theory of Metal Cutting......Page 276 7.7.2.2 Second Stage: Tool Durability and Machinability......Page 277 7.7.3 Theory of Machining Precision......Page 278 7.7.3.2 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing......Page 279 7.7.3.4 Vibration in Machining......Page 280 7.8 Evolution of Discipline in Modern Time......Page 281 7.8.2 Subject Advancing......Page 282 References......Page 283 8 Modern Higher Education in Mechanical Engineering......Page 287 8.1.1.1 Empirical Model: Apprenticeship......Page 288 8.1.1.2 Britain’s Decline......Page 289 8.1.2.1 Birth of Higher Engineering Education......Page 290 8.1.2.2 First Wave in Modern Engineering Education......Page 291 8.1.3.1 Wilhelm von Humboldt......Page 292 8.1.3.2 Higher Engineering Education in German......Page 293 8.1.3.3 Redtenbacher and German Model......Page 294 8.1.4.1 Start of Engineering Education in U.S.......Page 296 8.1.4.3 William Rogers and MIT......Page 297 8.2.1 Soviet Union: Extremely Narrow Specialized Education......Page 299 8.2.1.2 Engineering Education in Soviet Union......Page 300 8.2.2 Jewish Refugee Wave......Page 302 8.2.3 U.S.: New World Center of Science, Technology and Engineering Education......Page 303 8.3.1 General Education and Specialized Education......Page 304 8.3.2 Case Study and Comparison......Page 305 8.3.3.1 Evolution of the General Education Model in America......Page 307 8.3.3.2 Difference in Broadness of Knowledge and Study Load......Page 308 References......Page 309 9.1.1 New Revolution in Physics......Page 311 9.1.1.2 Theory of Relativity......Page 312 9.1.2 Birth of Systems Science......Page 313 9.1.2.1 Information Theory......Page 314 9.1.2.2 Cybernetics (Control Theory)......Page 315 9.1.2.3 Systems Theory......Page 317 9.1.3.1 Discovery of Chaos......Page 318 9.1.3.2 Formation of Nonlinear Science......Page 320 9.2.1.1 Atomic Energy (Nuclear Power)......Page 321 9.2.1.2 Electronic Computer......Page 322 9.2.1.3 Rocket......Page 323 9.2.2.1 Peace......Page 324 9.2.2.3 Crisis......Page 325 9.3.1.1 Microelectronic Technology......Page 327 9.3.1.2 Electronic Computer......Page 328 9.3.1.3 Artificial Intelligence (AI)......Page 330 9.3.1.4 Signal Processing......Page 331 9.3.1.5 Network Technology......Page 332 9.3.1.6 Sensing Technology......Page 333 9.3.2.1 Early Exploration......Page 334 9.3.2.3 New Era in Space Technology......Page 335 9.3.3 New Materials......Page 336 9.3.3.2 Ceramics......Page 337 9.3.3.4 Composites......Page 338 9.3.4.1 Nuclear Energy......Page 340 9.3.4.2 Wind Power......Page 341 9.3.4.3 Solar Power......Page 342 9.3.5 Modern Bio-technology......Page 343 9.3.6 Marine Engineering......Page 344 9.4.1.1 Team Work and Social Involvement......Page 345 9.4.1.2 Multidisciplinary......Page 346 9.4.1.5 Leading Role of the U.S.......Page 347 9.4.2.1 Economy Structure Change......Page 348 9.4.2.4 Changes in Way of Life and Work......Page 349 9.5.1.1 Numerical Solution of ODE......Page 350 9.5.1.2 Finite Element and Boundary Element......Page 351 9.5.2 Progress in Vibration Theory......Page 353 9.5.2.1 Inverse Problems......Page 354 9.5.2.2 Random Vibration......Page 355 9.5.3 Multibody Dynamics......Page 356 9.5.3.1 Rigid Multibody Dynamics......Page 357 9.5.3.2 Flexible Multibody Dynamics......Page 358 References......Page 359 10.1.1.1 Change in Market Requirements......Page 362 10.1.1.3 Relationship Between Technological Revolution and Mechanical Engineering......Page 363 10.1.1.4 Relationship Between Basic Science and Mechanical Engineering......Page 364 10.1.2.2 Advanced Manufacturing Technologies......Page 365 10.2 Trends of Mechanical Products in New Era......Page 366 10.2.1 Higher Speed and More Powerful......Page 367 10.2.3 Higher Level of Reliability......Page 368 10.2.4 Urgent Need for Lighter Weight......Page 369 10.2.6 Higher Level of Environmental-Friendliness......Page 370 10.2.8 Diversification and Personalization......Page 371 10.3 Important Inventions and Innovations in New Era......Page 372 10.3.1 Mechatronic Products......Page 373 10.3.2 Robots......Page 374 10.3.2.1 Serial Robots......Page 375 10.3.2.2 Parallel Robots......Page 377 10.3.3.1 High Speed Trains......Page 380 10.3.3.2 Maglev Train......Page 382 10.3.4.2 Other Construction Machines......Page 383 10.3.5.3 CT Scanner......Page 384 10.3.6.2 Internal Combustion Engines......Page 385 10.3.8 Agricultural Machines......Page 386 10.4 Important Developments in Manufacturing......Page 387 10.4.1 Automotive Manufacturing......Page 388 10.4.2 Aerospace Industry......Page 389 10.4.3 Large Power Generating Systems......Page 391 10.4.4 IC Fabrication......Page 392 10.4.5 Machine Tools......Page 393 10.5 Complex Electromechanical System......Page 394 References......Page 396 11.1 Introduction......Page 399 11.1.1.2 Two Key Words......Page 400 11.1.1.3 Three Characters......Page 401 11.1.2.1 Design Methodology......Page 402 11.2 Concurrent Engineering......Page 403 11.3.1 Birth of Creatology in U.S.......Page 404 11.3.2 TRIZ in USSR......Page 406 11.3.3 Creative Design......Page 407 11.3.5 Bionic Design (Biomimicry)......Page 408 11.4.1.1 The Birth of Computer Graphics......Page 410 11.4.1.2 Development of Computer Graphics......Page 411 11.4.1.3 Applications of Computer Graphics......Page 412 11.4.2.1 Birth of Computer-Aided Design......Page 413 11.4.2.2 Application of CAD......Page 414 11.5.1 Optimum Design......Page 415 11.5.2 Design for Reliability......Page 416 11.5.3 Design for Quality......Page 417 11.6.1.1 From Test-Analysis-and Fix to Dynamic Design......Page 418 11.6.1.2 Inverse and Direct Problem......Page 419 11.6.1.4 Structural Dynamic Optimization......Page 420 11.6.2.1 Methods of Vibration Control......Page 421 11.6.2.2 Various Dampers......Page 423 11.6.2.3 Active Vibration Control......Page 424 11.7.1 Value Engineering......Page 426 11.7.2 Industrial Design and Ergonomics......Page 427 References......Page 429 12.1.1.1 Higher Productivity......Page 432 12.1.1.2 Higher Accuracy......Page 433 12.1.1.4 Crisis of Natural Resources and Energy......Page 434 12.1.1.6 New Materials......Page 435 12.1.1.7 Extreme Dimension......Page 436 12.2 Automation: Backbone of Advanced Manufacturing......Page 437 12.2.1.2 Further Development of NC Machine Tools......Page 438 12.2.2.1 Group Technology......Page 440 12.2.4 Flexible Manufacturing Systems......Page 441 12.2.5 Robots in Manufacturing......Page 443 12.3.1 Tool Materials......Page 444 12.3.2 High-Speed Machining (HSM)......Page 445 12.3.3 Precision and Ultra-Precision Machining......Page 446 12.3.4 Machining of Difficult-to-Cut Materials......Page 447 12.3.6 Vibration Control of Machining......Page 448 12.3.6.2 Up-to-Date Development in Research of Chatter......Page 449 12.3.7 Advance in Machine Tools......Page 451 12.4.1 Free-Form Surface......Page 452 12.4.2 Machining of Spiral Bevel Gears......Page 453 12.5.1.1 Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)......Page 456 12.5.1.3 Electron Beam Machining (EBM)......Page 457 12.5.2.1 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)......Page 458 12.5.3 Electrochemical Machining......Page 459 12.6.1 Rapid Prototyping (RP)......Page 460 12.6.2.2 Application in Aerospace Engineering......Page 462 12.7.1 Green Manufacturing: From Awareness to Action......Page 463 12.7.2 Scope of Green Manufacturing......Page 464 12.7.3 Remanufacturing......Page 465 12.8.1.1 Basis: Popularization of Computer......Page 467 12.8.1.3 Contents of CIMS......Page 468 12.8.2 Distributed Manufacturing......Page 469 References......Page 470 13.1 Mechanism and Machine Science......Page 474 13.1.1 American School......Page 475 13.1.2.1 Analytic Methods......Page 476 13.1.2.4 Computational Kinematics......Page 477 13.1.3.2 Other New Types of Mechanisms......Page 478 13.1.4 Mechanism Dynamics......Page 479 13.1.4.2 Dynamics of Cam Mechanism......Page 480 13.1.4.3 Elastodynamics of Linkages......Page 481 13.1.5 MMS in China......Page 482 13.2.1 Standards for Strength Evaluation of Gears......Page 483 13.2.3 Progress in Theory of Gearing......Page 484 13.2.4 New Types of Meshing Transmission......Page 485 13.2.5.1 Continuously Variable Transmission......Page 487 13.2.5.2 High-Speed Intermittent Mechanism......Page 488 13.2.6 Informatizition and Intelligentization......Page 489 13.3.1 Robot Kinematics......Page 490 13.3.2 Robot Dynamics......Page 491 13.3.2.1 Dynamics of Rigid Robots......Page 492 13.3.2.2 Dynamics of Elastic Robots......Page 493 13.3.2.3 Dynamics of More Complicated Robots......Page 494 13.4.1 Introduction......Page 495 13.4.3 Refining Dynamic Modeling......Page 496 13.4.5 Branches of Machine Dynamics......Page 499 13.4.5.2 Automotive Dynamics......Page 500 13.5 Theories of Strength......Page 501 13.5.1.2 Reliability for Fatigue Strength......Page 502 13.5.2 Development of Fracture Mechanics......Page 503 13.6 Tribology......Page 505 13.6.1.2 Wear......Page 506 13.6.2.2 Contents of Tribology......Page 507 13.7 Micro-electro-Mechanical System......Page 508 13.7.1 Birth and Development of MEMS......Page 509 13.7.2 Application Prospect of MEMS......Page 510 13.7.3 Theoretical Researches on MEMS......Page 511 13.8 Fluid Transmission and Control......Page 512 13.9.1 Subject Advancing......Page 513 13.9.2 Subject Intercrossing......Page 514 References......Page 515 14.1 Development of Casting Technology......Page 519 14.1.1.1 Centrifugal Casting......Page 520 14.1.1.3 Metal Mold Casting......Page 521 14.1.2.2 Shell Mold Casting......Page 522 14.2.1 Forging......Page 523 14.2.3 Pressworking......Page 526 14.2.4 Extrusion......Page 528 14.2.6 Spinning......Page 529 14.3.1 Welding Technologies in 19th Century......Page 530 14.3.1.3 Resistance Welding......Page 531 14.3.2 Welding Technologies in First Half of 20th Century......Page 532 14.3.3 Welding Technologies in Third Technological Revolution......Page 533 14.4.1 Explosive Forming......Page 534 14.4.3 Shaping of Plastics......Page 535 14.5 Heat Treatment......Page 537 References......Page 538 Appendix: People in This Book......Page 539 Index......Page 553