Sensors for Mechatronics, 2nd Edition

Description

Sensors for Mechatronics, Second Edition, offers an overview of the sensors and sensor systems required and applied in mechatronics. Emphasis lies on the physical background of the operating principles that is illustrated with examples of commercially available sensors and recent developments. Chapters discuss the general aspects of sensors, with a special section on quantities, notations and relations. In addition, the book includes a section devoted to sensor errors and error minimization that apply to most of the sensors discussed. Each subsequent chapter deals with one class of sensors, pursuing a classification according to physical principles rather than measurands. Categories discussed include resistive, capacitive, inductive and magnetic, optical, piezoelectric and acoustic sensors. For each category of sensors, a number of applications is given. Where appropriate, a section is added on the interfacing of the sensor. Presents a fully revised, updated edition that focuses on industrial applications Provides comprehensive coverage of a wide variety of sensor concepts and basic measurement configurations Written by a recognized expert in the field with extensive experience in industry and teaching Suitable for practicing engineers and those wanting to learn more about sensors in mechatronics ** Sensors for Mechatronics Copyright Preface for the second edition Preface for the first edition 1 Introduction 1.1 Sensors in mechatronics 1.1.1 Definitions 1.1.2 Sensor development 1.1.3 Sensor nomenclature 1.1.4 Sensors and information 1.1.4.1 Binary sensors 1.1.4.2 Analogue sensors 1.1.4.3 Image sensors 1.1.4.4 Optical imaging 1.1.4.5 Acoustic imaging 1.1.4.6 Tactile imaging 1.2 Selection of sensors 1.3 Embedded sensing 1.3.1 Interfacing, conditioning, processing 1.3.2 Platform for illustration 1.3.3 Embedded control architecture 1.3.4 Developing applications References Further reading Introductory Books on Sensors and Mechatronics Books on Semiconductor Sensors Books on Processing and Arduino 2 Sensor fundamentals 2.1 Physical quantities 2.1.1 Classification of quantities 2.1.2 Relations between quantities 2.2 Sensor classifications 2.2.1 Classification based on measurand and application field 2.2.2 Classification based on port models 2.2.3 Classification based on conversion principles 2.2.4 Classification according to energy domain References Further reading Some books and articles on quantities and systems 3 Uncertainty aspects 3.1 Sensor specification 3.1.1 Sensitivity 3.1.2 Nonlinearity and hysteresis 3.1.3 Resolution 3.1.4 Accuracy 3.1.5 Offset and zero drift 3.1.6 Noise 3.1.7 Response time 3.1.8 Frequency response and bandwidth 3.1.9 Operating conditions 3.2 Sensor error reduction techniques 3.2.1 Compensation 3.2.2 Feedback methods 3.2.3 Filtering 3.2.3.1 Filtering prior to transduction 3.2.3.2 Filtering after transduction 3.2.4 Modulation 3.2.4.1 Multiplier as modulator 3.2.4.2 Switch modulator 3.2.4.3 Measurement bridge as modulator 3.2.5 Demodulation 3.2.6 Correction methods References Further reading 4 Resistive sensors 4.1 Resistivity and resistance 4.2 Potentiometric sensors 4.2.1 Construction and general properties 4.2.2 Electrical characteristics 4.2.3 Interfacing 4.2.4 Contact-free potentiometers 4.2.5 Applications of potentiometers 4.3 Strain gauges 4.3.1 Construction and properties 4.3.2 Interfacing of strain gauges 4.3.3 Applications of strain gauges 4.4 Piezoresistive sensors 4.4.1 Piezoresistivity 4.4.2 Silicon piezoresistive sensors 4.4.3 Piezoresistive elastomers 4.4.4 Applications of piezoresistive sensors 4.4.4.1 Tactile sensors 4.4.4.2 Touch sensors 4.4.4.3 Touch screens 4.4.5 Interfacing piezoresistive sensors 4.5 Magnetoresistive sensors 4.5.1 Magnetoresistivity 4.5.2 Applications of magnetoresistive sensors 4.6 Thermoresistive sensors 4.6.1 Thermoresistivity 4.6.2 Resistance thermometer 4.6.3 Thermistors 4.7 Optoresistive sensors References Further reading Books and reviews on magnetoresistive sensors and applications Books and review articles on tactile sensors 5 Capacitive sensors 5.1 Capacitance and permittivity 5.2 Basic configurations of capacitive sensors 5.2.1 Flat-plate capacitive sensors 5.2.2 Multiplate capacitive sensors 5.2.3 Silicon capacitive sensors 5.2.3.1 Silicon pressure sensors 5.2.3.2 Silicon accelerometers 5.3 Interfacing 5.3.1 Interfacing with analog circuits 5.3.2 Interfacing to embedded systems 5.4 Applications 5.4.1 Capacitive sensors for position- and force-related quantities 5.4.2 Sensing applications using internal capacitances 5.4.3 Sensing applications using external capacitances References Further reading 6 Inductive and magnetic sensors 6.1 Magnetic and electromagnetic quantities 6.1.1 Magnetic field strength, magnetic induction and flux 6.1.2 Permeability 6.1.3 Eddy currents 6.1.4 Magnetic resistance (reluctance) and self-inductance 6.1.5 Magnetostriction 6.2 Magnetic field sensors 6.2.1 Coil 6.2.2 Hall plate sensors 6.2.3 Fluxgate sensors 6.3 Magnetic- and induction-based displacement and force sensors 6.3.1 Magnetic proximity switches 6.3.2 Inductive proximity and displacement sensors 6.3.3 Eddy current displacement sensors 6.3.4 Variable differential transformers 6.3.5 Resolvers and synchros 6.3.6 Magnetostrictive or elastomagnetic sensors 6.4 Interfacing 6.4.1 Interfacing inductive sensors 6.4.2 Interfacing to embedded systems 6.5 Applications 6.5.1 Contact-free sensing using magnetic and inductive sensors 6.5.2 Applications of variable reluctance and eddy current sensors 6.5.2.1 Angular displacement 6.5.2.2 Linear displacement and velocity 6.5.2.3 Nondestructive testing and material characterization 6.5.3 Applications of other inductive sensors References Further reading Books Review Papers 7 Optical sensors 7.1 Electro-optical components 7.1.1 Light emitters 7.1.2 Light sensors 7.1.3 Position sensitive diode 7.2 Optical displacement sensors 7.2.1 Intensity measurement 7.2.2 Triangulation 7.2.3 Optical encoders 7.2.4 Interferometry 7.2.5 Time-of-flight 7.3 Interfacing 7.3.1 Light-emitting diodes and photodiodes 7.3.2 Interfacing position sensitive diodes 7.3.3 Interfacing optical sensors to embedded systems 7.4 Applications 7.4.1 Linear displacement sensing 7.4.1.1 Linear distance 7.4.1.2 Surface properties: roughness, flatness, thickness 7.4.1.3 Linear velocity and acceleration 7.4.2 Angular displacement sensing 7.4.3 Force, torque, and strain sensing 7.4.4 Object tracking 7.4.5 Object shape 7.4.6 Navigation References Further reading 8 Piezoelectric sensors 8.1 Piezoelectricity 8.1.1 Piezoelectric materials 8.1.2 Piezoelectric parameters 8.2 Force, pressure, and acceleration sensors 8.2.1 Construction 8.2.2 Characteristics of accelerometers 8.3 Interfacing 8.4 Applications 8.4.1 Stress and pressure 8.4.2 Acceleration 8.4.3 Tactile sensors References Further reading Some Books and Articles on Piezoelectric Materials, Sensors, and Applications 9 Acoustic sensors 9.1 Properties of the acoustic medium 9.1.1 Sound intensity and pressure 9.1.2 Sound propagation speed 9.1.3 Acoustic damping 9.1.4 Acoustic impedance 9.2 Acoustic sensors 9.2.1 General properties 9.2.2 Electrostatic transducers 9.2.3 Piezoelectric transducers 9.2.4 Arrays 9.3 Measurement methods 9.3.1 Burst 9.3.2 Continuous sine wave (CW) 9.3.3 Frequency-modulated continuous waves (FMCW) 9.3.4 Other signal types 9.4 Applications 9.4.1 Navigation 9.4.1.1 General 9.4.1.2 Navigation for mobile robots 9.4.1.3 Navigation tool for visually impaired persons 9.4.1.4 Localization of tools 9.4.2 Inspection 9.4.2.1 General 9.4.2.2 Acoustic imaging 9.4.2.3 NDT and material properties 9.4.2.4 Production and process control 9.4.2.5 Tactile sensors 9.4.3 Interfacing acoustic sensors to embedded systems 9.4.4 Conclusion References Further reading Appendix A Symbols and notations A.1 The electrical domain A.2 The thermal domain A.3 The mechanical domain A.4 The optical domain A.4.1 Optical quantities A.4.2 Radiant energy from a unit surface with Lambertian emission A.4.3 Derivation of relations between intensity and distance Appendix B Relations between quantities B.1 Generalized equations B.2 Application to four domains B.3 Heckmann diagrams Appendix C Basic interface circuits C.1 Operational amplifier C.2 Current-to-voltage converter C.3 Noninverting amplifier C.4 Inverting amplifier C.5 Comparator and schmitttrigger C.5.1 Comparator C.5.2 Schmitttrigger C.6 Integrator and differentiator C.6.1 Integrator C.6.2 Differentiator C.7 Filters Appendix D Practical guideline and code examples D.1 Introduction D.2 The analog to digital converter on Arduino D.2.1 Arduino code example D.2.2 Processing code example D.3 Capacitive sensing D.3.1 Direct capacitive reading D.3.2 Capacitive sensing using an external library D.4 Magnetic sensing D.4.1 Arduino oscilloscope sketch D.4.2 Processing oscilloscope sketch D.5 Optical sensing D.5.1 Sample timer approach D.5.2 External interrupt D.5.3 External interrupt, full quadrature D.5.4 Linear gray encoder D.6 Further reading Index