Social Psychology

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Cover Title page Copyright page Brief Contents Contents Preface About the Authors Special Tips for Students Chapter 1: Introducing Social Psychology Defining Social Psychology TRY IT! How Do Other People Affect Your Values? Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, and Common Sense How Social Psychology Differs from Its Closest Cousins TRY IT! Social Situations and Behaviors The Power of the Situation The Importance of Explanation The Importance of Interpretation Where Construals Come From: Basic Human Motives The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good About Ourselves SUFFERING AND SELF-JUSTIFICATION The Social Cognition Motive: The Need to Be Accurate EXPECTATIONS ABOUT THE SOCIAL WORLD Summary Test Yourself Chapter 2: Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research Social Psychology: An Empirical Science TRY IT! Social Psychology Quiz: What’s Your Prediction? Formulating Hypotheses and Theories INSPIRATION FROM EARLIER THEORIES AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESES BASED ON PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS Research Designs The Observational Method: Describing Social Behavior ETHNOGRAPHY ARCHIVAL ANALYSIS LIMITS OF THE OBSERVATIONAL METHOD The Correlational Method: Predicting Social Behavior SURVEYS LIMITS OF THE CORRELATIONAL METHOD: CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION TRY IT! Correlation and Causation: Knowing the Difference The Experimental Method: Answering Causal Questions INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES INTERNAL VALIDITY IN EXPERIMENTS EXTERNAL VALIDITY IN EXPERIMENTS FIELD EXPERIMENTS REPLICATIONS AND META-ANALYSIS BASIC VERSUS APPLIED RESEARCH New Frontiers in Social Psychological Research Culture and Social Psychology The Evolutionary Approach Social Neuroscience Ethical Issues in Social Psychology Summary Test Yourself Chapter 3: Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic Thinking with Schemas Which Schemas Do We Use? Accessibility and Priming Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Types of Automatic Thinking Automatic Goal Pursuit Automatic Decision Making Automatic Thinking and Metaphors About the Body and the Mind Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Judgmental Heuristics HOW EASILY DOES IT COME TO MIND? THE AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC HOW SIMILAR IS A TO B? THE REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC TRY IT! Reasoning Quiz PERSONALITY TESTS AND THE REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC Cultural Differences in Social Cognition Cultural Determinants of Schemas Holistic versus Analytic Thinking Controlled Social Cognition: High-Effort Thinking Controlled Thinking and Free Will TRY IT! Can You Predict Your (or Your Friend’s) Future? Mentally Undoing the Past: Counterfactual Reasoning Improving Human Thinking TRY IT! How Well Do You Reason? Watson Revisited Summary Test Yourself Chapter 4: Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People Nonverbal Communication TRY IT! Using Your Voice as a Nonverbal Cue Facial Expressions of Emotion EVOLUTION AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS WHY IS DECODING SOMETIMES DIFFICULT? Culture and the Channels of Nonverbal Communication First Impressions: Quick but Long-Lasting The Lingering Influence of Initial Impressions Using First Impressions and Nonverbal Communication to Our Advantage Causal Attribution: Answering the “Why” Question The Nature of the Attribution Process TRY IT! Listen as People Make Attributions The Covariation Model: Internal versus External Attributions The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists THE ROLE OF PERCEPTUAL SALIENCE IN THE FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR THE TWO-STEP ATTRIBUTION PROCESS Self-Serving Attributions The “Bias Blind Spot” Culture and Social Perception Holistic versus Analytic Thinking SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE EVIDENCE Cultural Differences in the Fundamental Attribution Error Culture and Other Attributional Biases Summary Test Yourself Chapter 5: The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context The Origins and Nature of the Self-Concept Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept TRY IT! A Measure of Independence and Interdependence Functions of the Self Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory TRY IT! Measure Your Private Self-Consciousness Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behavior Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation Mindsets and Motivation Understanding Our Emotions: The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion Finding the Wrong Cause: Misattribution of Arousal Using Other People to Know Ourselves Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People’s Views Knowing Our Future Feelings by Consulting Other People Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self Impression Management: All the World’s a Stage Ingratiation and Self-Handicapping Culture, Impression Management, and Self-Enhancement Self-Esteem: How We Feel About Ourselves Summary Test Yourself Chapter 6: The Need to Justify Our Actions: The Costs and Benefits of Dissonance Reduction The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance When Cognitions Conflict WHY WE OVERESTIMATE THE PAIN OF DISAPPOINTMENT Dissonance and the Self-Concept Decisions, Decisions, Decisions DISTORTING OUR LIKES AND DISLIKES THE PERMANENCE OF THE DECISION TRY IT! The Advantage of Finality CREATING THE ILLUSION OF IRREVOCABILITY THE DECISION TO BEHAVE IMMORALLY Dissonance, Culture, and the Brain DISSONANCE IN THE BRAIN DISSONANCE ACROSS CULTURES Self-Justification in Everyday Life The Justification of Effort TRY IT! Justifying What You’ve Done External versus Internal Justification COUNTERATTITUDINAL ADVOCACY Punishment and Self-Persuasion THE LASTING EFFECTS OF SELF-PERSUASION NOT JUST TANGIBLE REWARDS OR PUNISHMENTS The Hypocrisy Paradigm Justifying Good Deeds and Harmful Acts THE BEN FRANKLIN EFFECT: JUSTIFYING ACTS OF KINDNESS TRY IT! The Internal Consequences of Doing Good DEHUMANIZING THE ENEMY: JUSTIFYING CRUELTY Some Final Thoughts on Dissonance: Learning from Our Mistakes POLITICS AND SELF-JUSTIFICATION OVERCOMING DISSONANCE Summary Test Yourself Chapter 7: Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings The Nature and Origin of Attitudes Where Do Attitudes Come From? COGNITIVELY BASED ATTITUDES AFFECTIVELY BASED ATTITUDES TRY IT! Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes BEHAVIORALLY BASED ATTITUDES Explicit versus Implicit Attitudes When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors Predicting Deliberative Behaviors SPECIFIC ATTITUDES SUBJECTIVE NORMS PERCEIVED BEHAVIORAL CONTROL How Do Attitudes Change? Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior: Cognitive Dissonance Theory Revisited Persuasive Communications and Attitude Change THE CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL ROUTES TO PERSUASION THE MOTIVATION TO PAY ATTENTION TO THE ARGUMENTS THE ABILITY TO PAY ATTENTION TO THE ARGUMENTS HOW TO ACHIEVE LONG-LASTING ATTITUDE CHANGE Emotion and Attitude Change FEAR-AROUSING COMMUNICATIONS EMOTIONS AS A HEURISTIC EMOTION AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF ATTITUDES Attitude Change and the Body The Power of Advertising How Advertising Works Subliminal Advertising: A Form of Mind Control? DEBUNKING THE CLAIMS ABOUT SUBLIMINAL ADVERTISING LABORATORY EVIDENCE FOR SUBLIMINAL INFLUENCE TRY IT! Consumer Brand Attitudes Advertising, Stereotypes, and Culture GENDER STEREOTYPES AND EXPECTATIONS CULTURE AND ADVERTISING Resisting Persuasive Messages Attitude Inoculation Being Alert to Product Placement Resisting Peer Pressure When Persuasion Attempts Backfire: Reactance Theory Summary Test Yourself Chapter 8: Conformity: Influencing Behavior Conformity: When and Why Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know What’s “Right” The Importance of Being Accurate When Informational Conformity Backfires When Will People Conform to Informational Social Influence? WHEN THE SITUATION IS AMBIGUOUS WHEN THE SITUATION IS A CRISIS WHEN OTHER PEOPLE ARE EXPERTS Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch Line-Judgment Studies The Importance of Being Accurate, Revisited The Consequences of Resisting Normative Social Influence TRY IT! Unveiling Normative Social Influence by Breaking the Rules When Will People Conform to Normative Social Influence? WHEN THE GROUP GROWS LARGER WHEN THE GROUP IS IMPORTANT WHEN ONE HAS NO ALLIES IN THE GROUP WHEN THE GROUP’S CULTURE IS COLLECTIVISTIC Minority Influence: When the Few Influence the Many Strategies for Using Social Influence The Role of Injunctive and Descriptive Norms Using Norms to Change Behavior: Beware the “Boomerang Effect” Other Tactics of Social Influence Obedience to Authority The Role of Normative Social Influence The Role of Informational Social Influence Other Reasons Why We Obey CONFORMING TO THE WRONG NORM SELF-JUSTIFICATION THE LOSS OF PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY The Obedience Studies, Then and Now IT’S NOT ABOUT AGGRESSION Summary Test Yourself Chapter 9: Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups What Is a Group? Why Do People Join Groups? The Composition and Functions of Groups SOCIAL NORMS SOCIAL ROLES GROUP COHESIVENESS GROUP DIVERSITY Individual Behavior in a Group Setting Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others Energizes Us SIMPLE VERSUS DIFFICULT TASKS AROUSAL AND THE DOMINANT RESPONSE WHY THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS CAUSES AROUSAL Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others Relaxes Us Gender and Cultural Differences in Social Loafing: Who Slacks Off the Most? Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd DEINDIVIDUATION MAKES PEOPLE FEEL LESS ACCOUNTABLE DEINDIVIDUATION INCREASES OBEDIENCE TO GROUP NORMS DEINDIVIDUATION ONLINE Group Decisions: Are Two (or More) Heads Better Than One? Process Loss: When Group Interactions Inhibit Good Problem Solving FAILURE TO SHARE UNIQUE INFORMATION GROUPTHINK: MANY HEADS, ONE MIND Group Polarization: Going to Extremes Leadership in Groups LEADERSHIP AND PERSONALITY LEADERSHIP STYLES THE RIGHT PERSON IN THE RIGHT SITUATION GENDER AND LEADERSHIP CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP Conflict and Cooperation Social Dilemmas TRY IT! The Prisoner’s Dilemma INCREASING COOPERATION IN THE PRISONER’S DILEMMA Using Threats to Resolve Conflict EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION Negotiation and Bargaining Summary Test Yourself Chapter 10: Interpersonal Attraction: From First Impressions to Close Relationships What Predicts Attraction? The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect TRY IT! Mapping the Effect of Propinquity in Your Life Similarity OPINIONS AND PERSONALITY INTERESTS AND EXPERIENCES APPEARANCE GENETICS SOME FINAL COMMENTS ABOUT SIMILARITY Reciprocal Liking Physical Attractiveness WHAT IS ATTRACTIVE? CULTURAL STANDARDS OF BEAUTY THE POWER OF FAMILIARITY ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT ATTRACTIVE PEOPLE Evolution and Mate Selection EVOLUTION AND SEX DIFFERENCES ALTERNATE PERSPECTIVES ON SEX DIFFERENCES Making Connections in the Age of Technology Attraction 2.0: Mate Preference in an Online Era The Promise and Pitfalls of Online Dating Love and Close Relationships Defining Love: Companionship and Passion TRY IT! Passionate Love Scale Culture and Love Attachment Styles in Intimate Relationships This Is Your Brain . . . in Love Theories of Relationship Satisfaction: Social Exchange and Equity SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY EQUITY THEORY Ending Intimate Relationships The Process of Breaking Up The Experience of Breaking Up Summary Test Yourself Chapter 11: Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes KIN SELECTION THE RECIPROCITY NORM TRY IT! The Dictator Game GROUP SELECTION Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping Personal Qualities and Prosocial Behavior: Why Do Some People Help More Than Others? Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality TRY IT! Empathic Concern Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behavior Religion and Prosocial Behavior The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior EFFECTS OF POSITIVE MOODS: FEEL GOOD, DO GOOD FEEL BAD, DO GOOD Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior: When Will People Help? Environment: Rural versus Urban Residential Mobility The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect NOTICING AN EVENT INTERPRETING THE EVENT AS AN EMERGENCY ASSUMING RESPONSIBILITY KNOWING HOW TO HELP DECIDING TO IMPLEMENT THE HELP Effects of the Media: Video Games and Music Lyrics How Can Helping Be Increased? Increasing the Likelihood That Bystanders Will Intervene Increasing Volunteerism Positive Psychology, Human Virtues, and Prosocial Behavior Summary Test Yourself Chapter 12: Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It? Is Aggression Innate, Learned, or Optional? The Evolutionary View AGGRESSION IN OTHER ANIMALS Culture and Aggression CHANGES IN AGGRESSION ACROSS TIME AND CULTURES CULTURES OF HONOR Gender and Aggression PHYSICAL AGGRESSION RELATIONAL AGGRESSION TRY IT! Do Women and Men Differ in Their Responses? Learning to Behave Aggressively Some Physiological Influences THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL THE EFFECTS OF PAIN AND HEAT Social Situations and Aggression Frustration and Aggression Provocation and Reciprocation TRY IT! Insults and Aggression Weapons as Aggressive Cues Putting the Elements Together: The Case of Sexual Assault MOTIVATIONS FOR RAPE SEXUAL SCRIPTS AND THE PROBLEM OF CONSENT PUTTING THE ELEMENTS TOGETHER Violence and the Media Studying the Effects of Media Violence EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES LONGITUDINAL STUDIES The Problem of Determining Cause and Effect How to Decrease Aggression Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggression? USING PUNISHMENT ON VIOLENT ADULTS Catharsis and Aggression THE EFFECTS OF AGGRESSIVE ACTS ON SUBSEQUENT AGGRESSION BLAMING THE VICTIM OF OUR AGGRESSION What Are We Supposed to Do with Our Anger? VENTING VERSUS SELF-AWARENESS TRY IT! Controlling Your Anger TRAINING IN COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS COUNTERING DEHUMANIZATION BY BUILDING EMPATHY Disrupting the Rejection-Rage Cycle Summary Test Yourself Chapter 13: Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures Defining Prejudice The Cognitive Component: Stereotypes FROM CATEGORIES TO STEREOTYPES TRY IT! Stereotypes and Aggression WHAT’S WRONG WITH POSITIVE STEREOTYPES? STEREOTYPES OF GENDER The Affective Component: Emotions TRY IT! Identifying Your Prejudices The Behavioral Component: Discrimination RACIAL DISCRIMINATION GENDER DISCRIMINATION THE ACTIVATION OF PREJUDICE Detecting Hidden Prejudices Ways of Identifying Suppressed Prejudices Ways of Identifying Implicit Prejudices The Effects of Prejudice on the Victim The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Stereotype Threat Causes of Prejudice Pressures to Conform: Normative Rules Social Identity Theory: Us versus Them ETHNOCENTRISM IN-GROUP BIAS OUT-GROUP HOMOGENEITY BLAMING THE VICTIM JUSTIFYING FEELINGS OF ENTITLEMENT AND SUPERIORITY Realistic Conflict Theory ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL COMPETITION Reducing Prejudice The Contact Hypothesis When Contact Reduces Prejudice WHERE DESEGREGATION WENT WRONG Cooperation and Interdependence: The Jigsaw Classroom WHY DOES JIGSAW WORK? TRY IT! Jigsaw-Type Group Study THE GRADUAL SPREAD OF COOPERATIVE AND INTERDEPENDENT LEARNING Summary Test Yourself Social Psychology in Action 1 Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future Applied Research in Social Psychology Capitalizing on the Experimental Method ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERVENTIONS POTENTIAL RISKS OF SOCIAL INTERVENTIONS Social Psychology to the Rescue Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable Future Conveying and Changing Social Norms TRY IT! Reducing Littering with Descriptive Norms Keeping Track of Consumption Introducing a Little Competitiveness Inducing Hypocrisy Removing Small Barriers to Achieve Big Changes Happiness and a Sustainable Lifestyle What Makes People Happy? SATISFYING RELATIONSHIPS FLOW: BECOMING ENGAGED IN SOMETHING YOU ENJOY ACCUMULATE EXPERIENCES, NOT THINGS HELPING OTHERS TRY IT! Applying the Research to Your Own Life Do People Know What Makes Them Happy? Summary Test Yourself Social Psychology in Action 2 Social Psychology and Health Stress and Human Health Resilience Effects of Negative Life Events TRY IT! The College Life Stress Inventory LIMITS OF STRESS INVENTORIES Perceived Stress and Health Feeling in Charge: The Importance of Perceived Control INCREASING PERCEIVED CONTROL IN NURSING HOMES DISEASE, CONTROL, AND WELL-BEING Coping with Stress Gender Differences in Coping with Stress Social Support: Getting Help from Others TRY IT! Social Support Reframing: Finding Meaning in Traumatic Events Prevention: Promoting Healthier Behavior Summary Test Yourself Social Psychology in Action 3 Social Psychology and the Law Eyewitness Testimony Why Are Eyewitnesses Often Wrong? ACQUISITION STORAGE RETRIEVAL Judging Whether Eyewitnesses Are Mistaken RESPONDING QUICKLY THE PROBLEM WITH VERBALIZATION POST-IDENTIFICATION FEEDBACK TRY IT! The Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony The Recovered Memory Debate Juries: Group Processes in Action How Jurors Process Information During the Trial Confessions: Are They Always What They Seem? Deliberations in the Jury Room Summary Test Yourself Glossary References Credits Name Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Subject Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y Z Answer Key