Hb25_Springer Handbook of Marine Biotechnology

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List of Authors Contents List of Abbreviations 1 Introduction to Marine Biotechnology 1.1 Marine Biotechnology – Definition 1.2 Marine Biotechnology – Tools 1.3 Marine Sources and Research Areas 1.4 Applications of Marine Biotechnology 1.5 Research Scope 1.6 Organization of the Handbook References Part A Marine Flora and Fauna 2 Marine Fungal Diversity and Bioprospecting 2.1 Preamble 2.2 Diversity of Fungi 2.3 Habitats of Fungi in the Marine Ecosystem 2.4 Habitat Characteristics and Their Effect on Fungal Diversity 2.5 Collection, Isolation, and Identification of Fungi 2.6 Bioprospecting of Marine Fungi 2.7 Conclusions References 3 Diversity of Marine Phototrophs 3.1 Traditional Understanding of Primary Producers (1970s) 3.2 Recognition of Picocyanobacteria Dominance (1970s–2000s) 3.3 Discovery of Ubiquitous Photoheterotrophs (2000–Current Times) 3.4 Oxygenic Photosynthesis Using Far-Red Light (1990s–2011) 3.5 Discovery of Picoeukaryotic Phytoplankton (1990s–2011) 3.6 Strange Phototrophic(?) Microorganisms (1990–2011) 3.7 Diversity of Light Energy Transformation Systems and Reconsideration of Photosynthesis 3.8 Conclusion References 4 Marine Viruses 4.1 Viruses 4.2 General Characteristic Features of Viruses 4.3 Host Specificity 4.4 Viral Families in Marine Ecosystems 4.5 Marine Phages 4.6 Impact of Marine Viruses on Mollusks 4.7 Marine Viruses and Shrimp Aquaculture 4.8 Conclusion References 5 Marine Microalgae 5.1 Overview 5.2 Marine Microalgae 5.3 Microalgal Genomes 5.4 Genetic Engineering of Microalgae 5.5 Photobioreactors for Marine Microalgae References 6 Seaweed Flora of the European North Atlantic and Mediterranean 6.1 Marine Macroalgae (Seaweeds) 6.2 The Marine Algae and Their Biotechnological Potential 6.3 Taxonomy and Description of Marine Algae with Biotechnological Potential References 7 Corals 7.1 Background 7.2 Potential Pharmaceuticals from Soft Corals 7.3 Potential Pharmaceuticals from Hard Corals 7.4 Mycosporine-Like Amino Acids (MAAs) 7.5 Conclusion References 8 Marine Sponges – Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 8.1 Marine Sponges 8.2 Sponge-Associated Microorganisms 8.3 Symbiotic Functions of Sponge-Associated Microorganisms 8.4 Biotechnological Potential of Marine Sponges – Pharmacological Potential 8.5 Exploiting the Pharmacological Potential of Marine Sponges 8.6 Metagenomic Strategies for Natural Product Discovery 8.7 Conclusions References Part B Tools and Methods in Marine Biotechnology 9 Bioprocess Engineering of Phototrophic Marine Organisms 9.1 Introduction to Marine Process Engineering 9.2 Growth Characteristics of Phototrophic Suspension Cultures 9.3 Basic Elements of Photobioreactor Design and Operation 9.4 Limiting Factors in Photobioreactor Design and Operation 9.5 Future Directions for Process Scale Enclosed Photobioreactors 9.6 Notation References 10 Bioinformatic Techniques on Marine Genomics 10.1 Background 10.2 Marine and Bacterial Fluorescence Shining Light on Biological Questions 10.3 Recent Advances in Imaging Techniques for Marine Biotechnology 10.4 Chemical Analysis of Volatile Microbial Metabolites 10.5 Bioinformatics Resources 10.6 Large-Scale Sequence Analysis 10.7 Integrating Sequence and Contextual Data 10.8 Proteomics as Potential Tool for Survey in Marine Biotechnology 10.9 Proteomics and Seafood 10.10 Present Status and Future Trends of Proteomics in Marine Biotechnology 10.11 Pharmacophore Model Hypo1, Virtual Screening for Identification of Novel Tubulin Inhibitors with Potent Anticancer Activity 10.12 The Polymerase Chain Reaction: A Marine Perspective 10.13 Conclusions and New Frontiers References 11 Microbial Bioprospecting in Marine Environments 11.1 Bioprospecting 11.2 Marine Microbial Habitats and Their Biotechnologically-Relevant Microorganisms 11.3 Methods for Microbial Bioprospecting in Marine Environments 11.4 Conclusions References 12 Novel Bioreactors for Culturing Marine Organisms 12.1 Biofilm Reactors (BFR) 12.2 Photobioreactors (PBR)-Tubular, Plate/Panel and Stirred Tank Configurations 12.3 Airlift Bioreactors (ALBR) and Bubble Column Bioreactors (BCBR) 12.4 Membrane Bioreactors (MBR) 12.5 Immobilized-Cell Bioreactors 12.6 Hollow Fiber Bioreactors (HFBR) 12.7 Fluidized Bed and Moving Bed Bioreactors (FBBR and MBBR) 12.8 High-Temperature and/or High-Pressure Bioreactors (HP-/HTBR) References 13 Transgenic Technology in Marine Organisms 13.1 Synopsis 13.2 Production of Transgenic Marine Organisms 13.3 Characterization of Transgenic Marine Organisms 13.4 Biotechnological Application of Transgenic Marine Organisms 13.5 Concerns and Future Perspectives References 14 Marine Enzymes – Production and Applications 14.1 Overview 14.2 Cultivation Techniques of Marine Bacteria 14.3 Examples of Marine Enzymes 14.4 Molecular Biology 14.5 Downstream Processing of Marine Enzymes 14.6 Conclusion References 15 Biofouling Control by Quorum Quenching 15.1 Overview 15.2 Bacterial Biosensors 15.3 Quorum Quenching (QQ) 15.4 Applications References 16 Detection of Invasive Species 16.1 Background 16.2 Traditional Techniques 16.3 Sample Collection 16.4 Molecular Approach to the Identification of Marine Invasive Species 16.5 PCR-Based Methods Utilized for Routine Identification and/or Surveillance 16.6 Ecogenomic Techniques 16.7 Future Approaches 16.8 Concluding Remarks References Part C Marine Genomics 17 Marine Sponge Metagenomics 17.1 Background and Problems of Sponge Research 17.2 The Principle of Metagenomics and Related Techniques 17.3 Application and Latest Progress in Sponge Metagenomics 17.4 Future Perspectives References 18 Proteomics: Applications and Advances 18.1 Omics 18.2 Overview of Proteomics Techniques 18.3 Proteomics and Marine Biotechnology 18.4 Aquaculture 18.5 Environment 18.6 Natural Products 18.7 Algal Toxins 18.8 Conclusion References 19 Marine Metagenome and Supporting Technology 19.1 Bacteria and Marine Ecosystems 19.2 Technologies Supporting Metagenomic Research 19.3 Summary References 20 Microfluidic Systems for Marine Biotechnology 20.1 Basic Principal of Microfluidics 20.2 Microfluidic Devices for Marine Biology and Ecosystem Studies 20.3 Microfluidic Devices for Sea-Related Health and Safety 20.4 Microfluidic Systems for Other Marine Biotechnology Applications 20.5 Conclusion References 21 Genome Mining for Bioactive Compounds 21.1 Overview 21.2 Temporary Halt in the Discovery of Bioactive Compounds 21.3 Future Directions 21.4 The Hurdles of Drug Discovery 21.5 Marine Pharmaceuticals Under Clinical Trials References Part D Marine Algal Biotechnology 22 Cell Wall Polysaccharides of Marine Algae 22.1 Overview 22.2 Structural Diversity of Algal Polysaccharides 22.3 Isolation from Algal Raw Material 22.4 Algal Polysaccharides such as Phycocolloids 22.5 Biological Activities and Medicinal Applications References 23 Iodine in Seaweed: Two Centuries of Research References 24 Marine Macrophytes: Biosorbents 24.1 Marine Macrophytes 24.2 Heavy Metals: Definition and Toxicity 24.3 Biosorption 24.4 Biosorption Experiments: Procedure 24.5 Conclusions References 25 Marine Algae Biomass for Removal of Heavy Metal Ions 25.1 General Remarks 25.2 Chemical Characteristics of Marine Algae Biomass 25.3 Experimental Methodology 25.4 Influence of Experimental Parameters 25.5 Modeling of Biosorption Process in Batch Conditions: Isotherm and Kinetic Models 25.6 Modeling of Biosorption Process in Dynamic Continuous-Flow Conditions 25.7 Mechanism of Biosorption 25.8 Final Remarks References Part E Marine Microbiology and Biotechnology 26 Biotechnological Potential of Marine Microbes 26.1 Microbial Diversity in the World's Oceans and Biotechnological Applications of Marine Microbes 26.2 Why Do Marine Microbes Matter in Biotechnology? 26.3 Biotechnology of Marine Microbes, from Viruses to Microbial Eukaryotes 26.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 27 Marine Actinomycetes in Biodiscovery 27.1 Overview 27.2 Advances in the Field of Biodiscovery: Genomics and Genome Mining for Discovery of New Antibiotics 27.3 Ecological and Physiological Perspectives 27.4 An Australian Example: Exploring the Biosynthetic Potential of a Marine-Derived Streptomycete 27.5 Future Prospects References 28 Biotransformation of Nitriles by Marine Fungi 28.1 Overview 28.2 Experimental Methods 28.3 Results and Discussion 28.4 Conclusion References Part F Marine Derived Metabolites 29 Drugs and Leads from the Ocean Through Biotechnology 29.1 Overview and Current Status 29.2 Approved Marine Drugs as Pharmaceuticals 29.3 Marine Natural Products – Overcoming Hurdles 29.4 Quo Vadis? Marine Natural Products and Clinical Trials 29.5 Marine Natural Products: New and Recurrent Challenges References 30 Biocatalysts from Aplysia: Sweet Spot in Enzymatic Carbohydrate Synthesis 30.1 Biocatalysis, Glycosylation and Marine Enzymes 30.2 Biocatalytic Methodologies to Access Glycosides and Oligosaccharides 30.3 The Marine Ecosystem as a Source for New Glycoside Hydrolases 30.4 Glycoside Hydrolases Present in the Genus Aplysia 30.5 Other Enzymatic Activities of Interest Present in Aplysia sp. 30.6 Conclusion References 31 Antimicrobial Peptides from Marine Organisms 31.1 Marine Antimicrobial Peptides 31.2 Isolation of Antimicrobial Peptides 31.3 Characterization and Functions of AMP 31.4 Future Directions in Marine AMP Applications References 32 Marine-Derived Fungal Metabolites 32.1 Overview 32.2 Drug Screening from Marine Organisms 32.3 Marine Organic Compounds 32.4 Conclusions References 33 Marine Dinoflagellate-Associated Human Poisoning 33.1 Preface 33.2 Historical Perspective 33.3 Marine Dinoflagellates 33.4 Algal Blooms and Red Tide Dinoflagellates 33.5 Toxigenic Dinoflagellate-Associated Human Poisoning 33.6 Biotechnological Significance of Toxic Marine Dinoflagellates 33.7 Control and Prevention 33.8 Discussion and Conclusion References 34 Carotenoids, Bioactive Metabolites Derived from Seaweeds 34.1 Seaweeds 34.2 Biological Activities of Carotenoids and Health Benefit Effects 34.3 Concluding Remarks References 35 Marine Bioactive Compounds from Cnidarians 35.1 Cnidarians 35.2 The Most Promising Marine Natural Products from Cnidaria 35.3 Concluding Remarks and Future Challenges References 36 Fatty Acids of Marine Sponges 36.1 Fatty Acids – Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Importance 36.2 Sponge Fatty Acids 36.3 Bioactive Lipids/FAs from Marine Sponges 36.4 Summary References 37 Marine Biotoxins 37.1 Marine Toxins 37.2 Lipophilic Toxins 37.3 Hydrophilic Toxins 37.4 Other Toxins 37.5 Biotechnological Techniques Used to Study Toxic Microalgae and Marine Biotoxins 37.6 Biotechnology Application for Phytoplankton Detection, Monitoring, and Toxins Production 37.7 Potential Pharmacological Uses of Phycotoxins References 38 Marine Microbial Enzymes: Current Status and Future Prospects 38.1 Overview 38.2 Marine Extremozymes and Their Significance 38.3 Current Use of Marine Microbial Enzymes 38.4 Current Research Status of Marine Microbial Enzymes 38.5 Future Prospects 38.6 Conclusion References 39 Marine-Derived Exopolysaccharides 39.1 In Search of New Polysaccharides 39.2 Marine Biodiversity 39.3 Bacterial Polysaccharides 39.4 Applications of EPSs 39.5 Marine EPSs as Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) 39.6 Conclusion References 40 Sulfated Polysaccharides from Green Seaweeds 40.1 Overview 40.2 Extraction and Chemical Composition of Sulfated Polysaccharides 40.3 Structural Characteristics of Sulfated Polysaccharides 40.4 Biological Activities of Sulfated Polysaccharide from Green Seaweeds 40.5 Conclusion References Part G Application of Marine Biotechnology 41 Marine-Derived Pharmaceuticals and Future Prospects 41.1 Marine Bioresources 41.2 Marine Secondary Metabolites 41.3 Marine Proteins 41.4 Marine Lipids 41.5 Molecular Biology Approaches 41.6 Future Trends in Marine Pharmaceuticals References 42 Marine Functional Foods 42.1 General Overview 42.2 Marine Sources as Healthy Foods or Reservoirs of Functional Ingredients 42.3 Food Marine-Derived Ingredients with Biological Properties 42.4 Functional Foods Incorporating Marine-Derived Ingredients 42.5 Current Understanding and Future Trends References 43 Marine Nutraceuticals 43.1 Marine Bioactives as Potential Nutraceuticals 43.2 Functional Carbohydrates 43.3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 43.4 Carotenoids 43.5 Soluble Calcium 43.6 Fish Collagen and Gelatin 43.7 Marine Probiotics 43.8 Nutraceutical Market Trends and Quality Control 43.9 R&D for Facing the Challenges and Supply for the Demand References 44 Cosmetics from Marine Sources 44.1 Scenario of Marine Sources in the Cosmetic Industry 44.2 Cosmetics: Definition and Regulations 44.3 Cosmeceuticals 44.4 Target Organs and Cosmetics Delivery Systems 44.5 Components of Cosmetics 44.6 Major Functions of Some Marine Components in Cosmetics and Cosmeceuticals 44.7 Treatments Based on Marine Resources 44.8 Products Based on Marine Resources 44.9 Conclusions References 45 Omega-3 Fatty Acids Produced from Microalgae 45.1 Importance of Unsaturated Fatty Acids 45.2 Potential Alternative Sources for PUFA Production 45.3 Marine Microalgae 45.4 Biosynthesis of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Marine Algae 45.5 Microalgae Fermentation for the Production of PUFAs 45.6 Thraustochytrid Fermentation 45.7 Conclusions References 46 Selenoneine in Marine Organisms 46.1 Biochemistry of Selenium 46.2 Selenium and Selenoneine Determination 46.3 Biochemical Characterization of Selenoneine 46.4 Nutritional and Functional Properties of Dietary Organic Selenium 46.5 MeHg Detoxification 46.6 Conclusion References 47 Biological Activities of Marine-Derived Oligosaccharides 47.1 Overview 47.2 Preparation of Alginate Oligosaccharide Mixture 47.3 Antioxidant Activities of Alginate Oligosaccharides 47.4 Cytokine-Inducing Activities of Alginate Oligosaccharides 47.5 Induction of Cytokines in Mice 47.6 Growth-Promoting Effect of Alginate Oligosaccharides References 48 Vector and Agricultural Pest Control 48.1 Preamble 48.2 Current Status of Research and Development in the Subject 48.3 Research in India 48.4 Preparation of Crude Extracts 48.5 Active Extracts of Marine Origin 48.6 Pesticidal Properties of Alkyl Xanthates 48.7 Antifeedant and IGR Activities of Xanthates 48.8 Conclusions References Part H Bioenergy and Biofuels 49 Nanotechnology – from a Marine Discovery Perspective 49.1 Marine Nanotechnology 49.2 The Ocean as Source for Nanomaterials and Nanodevices 49.3 Ocean in Climate Control 49.4 Detoxification of Nanomaterials 49.5 Biomimetics 49.6 Conclusions References 50 Algal Photosynthesis, Biosorption, Biotechnology, and Biofuels 50.1 Overview 50.2 Algal Photosynthesis 50.3 Algal Biofuels 50.4 Algal Biotechnology 50.5 Algal Biosorption 50.6 Conclusion References 51 Biofuel Innovation by Microbial Diversity 51.1 Bioprospecting of Marine Microbial Diversity 51.2 Marine Microbial Diversity Applied to Biofuel Innovation 51.3 Conclusions References 52 Maraine Biomaterials as Antifouling Agent 52.1 Pollution 52.2 Use of Marine Biomaterials for Water Treatment 52.3 Modification of Marine Biomaterials 52.4 Antifouling Marine Biomaterials for Water Treatment 52.5 Conclusion References Part I Biomedical Applications 53 Marine Biomaterials 53.1 Examples of Marine Biomaterials 53.2 Marine Polysaccharides 53.3 Marine Ceramics 53.4 Current Understanding and Future Needs 53.5 Conclusions References 54 Marine Materials: Gene Delivery 54.1 Nonviral Vectors for Gene Delivery 54.2 Chitosan 54.3 Alginate References 55 Marine Organisms in Nanoparticle Synthesis 55.1 Basic Concepts in Nanotechnology 55.2 Marine Ecosystems 55.3 Nanostructures Inherently Produced by Marine Organisms 55.4 Metal Interactions in Marine Biological Forms 55.5 Bacteria in Nanoparticle Synthesis 55.6 Fungi in the Synthesis of Nanomaterials 55.7 Algae in the Synthesis of Nanoparticles 55.8 Marine Plants in Nanoparticle Synthesis 55.9 Nanoparticle Synthesis by Sponges 55.10 Mechanistic Aspects 55.11 Current Understanding and Future Needs References 56 Marine Biomaterials in Therapeutics and Diagnostics 56.1 Biomaterials 56.2 Classification of Biomaterials 56.3 Marine Biodiversity 56.4 Biomaterials from Marine Origin 56.5 Status of Marine Natural Product as Therapeutic Agents 56.6 Marine Resources for Medical Diagnostic Devices References 57 Enzymatically Synthesized Biosilica 57.1 The Sponges: The Earliest Ancestor of the Metazoa 57.2 Silicatein-Based Siliceous Spicule Formation 57.3 Spiculogenesis 57.4 Bio-Silica: The Enzymatically Formed Scaffold of Siliceous Sponge Spicules 57.5 Self-Healing Property of Silicatein Embedded in Spicules 57.6 Bio-Silica: The Osteogenic Bioinorganic Polymer 57.7 Future Design of Novel Bioinspired, Silica-Based Materials References 58 Biomineralization in Marine Organisms 58.1 Overview 58.2 Materials – Biominerals 58.3 Materials – Proteins Controlling Biomineralization 58.4 Organisms and Structures That They Biomineralize 58.5 Functions 58.6 Applications References Part J Industrial Applications 59 Functional Feeds in Aquaculture 59.1 Overview 59.2 Food Formulation Ingredients 59.3 Conventional Feeds Versus Functional Feeds 59.4 Aquaculture Regulations 59.5 Functional Feeds in Aquaculture 59.6 Results Obtained in Crustaceans and Fish Using Functional Feeds 59.7 Conclusions References 60 Mussel-Derived Bioadhesives 60.1 Marine Mussel Adhesion 60.2 Application of MAPs to Tissue Engineering 60.3 Application of MAP to Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 60.4 Application of MAP Using Complex Coacervation 60.5 MAP-Based Biosensors for Industrial Applications References 61 Marine Silicon Biotechnology 61.1 Overview 61.2 Silicateins: Structure and Molecular Mechanisms 61.3 Silicatein-Mediated Synthesis of Inorganic Materials 61.4 Genetically Engineered Silicateins 61.5 Prospectives References 62 Microalgal Biotechnology: Biofuels and Bioproducts 62.1 Sustainable Biofuels from Marine Microalgae: Closer to Reality than Fiction 62.2 Why Microalgae is Promissory for Biofuel Production 62.3 Biodiesel Production by Microalgal Lipid Transesterification 62.4 Bioethanol from Microalgae: A Simpler Procedure 62.5 Microalgal Biohydrogen Production Through Sunlight and Seawater 62.6 Genomics and Metabolic Engineering of Microalgae for Biofuels Production 62.7 Microalgal Culture Systems: A Contribution to the Sustainability of Biofuels 62.8 Products of Industrial Interest from Microalgae 62.9 Future Needs: Making Sustainable the Unsustainable Lightness of Biofuels References 63 Marine Actinobacterial Metabolites and Their Pharmaceutical Potential 63.1 Marine Actinobacteria 63.2 Research on Marine Actinobacteria 63.3 Novel Metabolites from Marine Actinobacteria 63.4 Conclusion References 64 Marine Microbial Biosurfactins 64.1 Overview 64.2 Methodology of Production of Marine Biosurfactants 64.3 Applications of Marine Bioactive Biosurfactants 64.4 Conclusions References 65 Nutraceuticals and Bioactive Compounds from Seafood Processing Waste 65.1 Seafood as a Source of Nutraceuticals 65.2 Bio-Waste from Processing of Seafood 65.3 Seafood Waste and Discards as Sources of Nutraceuticals 65.4 Nitrogen-Derived Compounds 65.5 Lipid-Based Nutraceuticals 65.6 Polysaccharide-Derived Nutraceuticals 65.7 Mineral-Based Nutraceuticals 65.8 Novel Marine Organisms and Compounds 65.9 Commercial Aspects References Acknowledgements About the Authors Detailed Contents Index