Sustainable Uses and Prospects of Medicinal Plants

Description

Sustainable Uses and Prospects of Medicinal Plants presents information on less known and underexplored medicinal plant species in various regions of the world. The book investigates current advances in medicinal plant science and includes detailed information on the use of green nanotechnology, characterization of plants, conservation, revitalization, propagation, and pharmacological activities of selected plants. A volume in the Exploring Medicinal Plants series, it collects information on less known medicinal plant species in various regions of the world for documentation profiling their ethnobotany, developments in their phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities and provides an in-depth look at some specific herbal medicines of importance, threatened and less known species and addresses sustainable utilization and conservation of medicinal plants to ensure existence and use. Appropriate for plant and biodiversity conservation organisations, community leaders, academicians, researchers, and pharmaceutical industry personnel, the book comprises innovative works with information of what is expected to address sustainability in the future. Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Editors Contributors Chapter 1 Sustainable Uses and Prospects of Medicinal Plants: A Brief Overview Chapter 2 Protecting the Endemism of Threatened Cyclotide-Rich Medicinal Plants: The Tropical African Experience 2.1 Introduction 2.2 African Herbal Ethnomedicine and Cyclotide Discovery 2.3 Endemism of the Cyclotide-Rich Oldenlandia affinis 2.4 Endemism of Other Cyclotide-Rich Violaceae Plant Family in Africa: Emerging Threats 2.5 Competitive Approaches to Safeguard Endemic Cyclotide-Producing African Plants 2.6 Future Perspectives 2.6.1 Fighting Plant Biodiversity Loss in Africa 2.6.2 Future of African Plant Biodiversity 2.6.3 Protection and Sustainable Use of Endemic Cyclotide-Rich Species in Africa 2.7 Conclusion and Prospects Acknowledgement References Chapter 3 Traditional Medicinal Plant Use in Improving the Livelihoods and Well-Being of Namibian Communities 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Medicinal Mushrooms 3.2.1 Mushroom Species Contributing to the Well-Being of Namibian Communities 3.2.2 Ethnopharmacological Evidence 3.2.3 Mushroom Species Contributing to the Livelihood of Namibian Communities 3.2.4 Sustainable Use of Selected Mushroom Species 3.3 Manketti (Schinziophyton rautanenii) 3.3.1 Manketti Contributing to the Well-Being of Namibian Communities 3.3.2 Ethnopharmacological Evidence 3.3.3 Manketti as a Source of Income to Improve Livelihoods 3.3.4 Sustainable Use of Manketti 3.4 Devil’s Claw (Harpagophytum procumbens and Harpagophytum zeyheri) 3.4.1 Devil’s Claw Contributing to the Well-Being of Namibian Communities 3.4.2 Ethnopharmacological Evidence 3.4.3 Devil’s Claw Contributing to Livelihoods 3.4.4 Sustainable Use of Devil’s Claw 3.5 Governance/Institutional Structures to Access Traditional Knowledge and/or Genetic Resources 3.6 Conclusion and Prospects Acknowledgements References Chapter 4 Antiviral and Immune-Boosting Potentials of Four Common Edible Flowers 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Edible Flowers 4.3 Musa x paradisiaca L.; Musa acuminata Colla (Banana Inflorescence/Flower/Blossom/Heart) 4.3.1 Botanical Description 4.3.2 Culinary Uses 4.3.3 Phytochemical Constituents 4.3.4 Traditional and Pharmacological Uses of Banana Flowers 4.3.5 Antiviral and Immune-Boosting Properties 4.3.6 Assessment 4.4 Calendula officinalis Linn.(Asteraceae) 4.4.1 Botanical Description 4.4.2 Culinary Uses 4.4.3 Nutritional Composition 4.4.4 Phytochemical Constituents 4.4.5 Traditional and Pharmacological Uses 4.4.6 Antiviral and Immune-Boosting Properties 4.4.7 Cautions and Contraindications 4.4.8 Assessment 4.5 Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. (Asteraceae) (Dandelion Flower) 4.5.1 Botanical Description 4.5.2 Culinary Uses 4.5.3 Nutritional Composition 4.5.4 Phytochemical Constituents 4.5.5 Traditional and Pharmacological Uses 4.5.6 Antiviral and Immune-Boosting Properties 4.5.7 Assessment 4.6 Hibiscus sabdariffa Linnaeus (Malvaceae) (Roselle) 4.6.1 Botanical Description 4.6.2 Culinary Uses 4.6.3 Nutritional Composition of Hibiscus sabdariffa Flower 4.6.4 Phytochemical Content 4.6.5 Traditional and Pharmacological Uses 4.6.6 Antiviral and Immune-Boosting Properties 4.6.7 Assessment 4.7 Conclusions and Prospects Conflict of Interest Acknowledgements References Chapter 5 Characterization and Docking Studies of Immunomodulatory Active Compounds from Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Leaves 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Materials and Methods 5.2.1 Materials 5.2.2 Collection of Samples 5.2.3 Preparation of Extracts 5.2.4 Antioxidant Properties 5.2.4.1 DPPH Assay 5.2.4.2 ABTS Assay 5.2.4.3 FRAP Assay 5.2.5 Extraction and Phytoconstituent Characterization 5.2.5.1 Thin Layer Chromatography Analysis of the Methanolic Extract 5.2.5.2 Isolation of Compounds by Column Chromatography 5.2.5.3 TLC of Purified Fractions 5.2.5.4 HPLC Analysis 5.2.5.5 IR and Mass Spectrometry 5.2.6 Immunomodulatory Properties 5.2.7 Candidacidal Assay 5.2.8 Cytotoxicity Assay 5.2.8.1 Cytotoxicity of H[sub(2)]O[sub(2)] 5.2.8.2 H[sub(2)]O[sub(2)] Dose Curve of Purified Compounds 5.2.8.3 Estimation of Nitric Oxide (NO) Production 5.2.9 Docking Studies 5.2.10 Statistical Analysis 5.3 Results 5.3.1 Antioxidant Assay 5.3.1.1 DPPH Assay 5.3.1.2 ABTS Assay 5.3.1.3 FRAP Assay 5.3.1.4 Thin-Layer Chromatography of the Methanolic Extract 5.3.2 Extraction and Phytoconstituent Characterization 5.3.2.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography of Purified Compounds 5.3.2.2 HPLC Analysis 5.3.2.3 Structural Characterization 5.3.3 Candidacidal Assay 5.3.4 Cytotoxicity Activity and H[sub(2)]O[sub(2)] Dose–Response Curve of the Extracts 5.3.4.1 Dose Curve of a Purified Isolated Compound 5.3.4.2 Effect of Purified Isolated Compounds on RAW264.7 Cells at Different Time Points 5.3.4.3 Estimation of Nitric Oxide (NO) Production 5.3.5 Docking Studies 5.4 Discussion 5.5 Conclusion and Prospects Acknowledegements References Chapter 6 Herbal and Traditional Medicine Practices against Viral Infections : Perspectives against COVID-19 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Methodology 6.3 Results 6.3.1 Mechanism of Infection by SARS-CoV-2 6.3.2 Medicinal Plants and Their Role in Viral Infections 6.3.3 Natural Compounds Against Viral Infection 6.3.4 Traditional Therapy Against COVID-19 6.4 Conclusion and Prospects Acknowledgements References Chapter 7 Traditional Herbal Remedies Used in Management of Acute Bronchitis, Common Cold, and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 in Southern Africa 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Symptoms and Management of Acute Bronchitis 7.1.2 Symptoms and Management of Common Cold 7.1.3 Symptoms and Management of SARS-CoV-2 7.2 Traditional Herbal Remedies for Management of Common Cold and Acute Bronchitis 7.3 Herbal Remedies with Potential for Management of SARS-CoV-2 7.4 Conclusion and Prospects References Chapter 8 Solanum nigrum Seed Viability and Germination, and Soil Modulation Effect on Seedling Emergence 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Materials and Methods 8.3 Statistical Analysis 8.4 Results 8.5 Discussion 8.6 Conclusions Acknowledgements References Chapter 9 Indian Medicinal Plants and Their Potential Against Coronaviruses 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Coronaviruses: A General Overview 9.3 Pathogenic Effect of COVID-19 9.4 Antiviral Activity of Indian Medicinal Plants Against Coronaviruses 9.4.1 Ocimum sanctum 9.4.2 Zingiber officinale 9.4.3 Curcuma longa 9.4.4 Glycyrrhiza glabra 9.4.5 Houttuynia cordata 9.4.6 Tinospora cordifolia 9.4.7 Withania somnifera 9.4.8 Allium sativum 9.4.9 Phyllanthus emblica 9.5 Conclusion and Prospects References Chapter 10 Scientific Evaluation and Biochemical Validation of Efficacy of Extracts and Phytochemicals from Zimbabwe: A Review of Prospects for Development of Bioproducts 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Microbial Infections 10.3 Plants as Sources of Anti-Infective Compounds 10.4 Evaluation and Biochemical Validation 10.4.1 Antibacterial Evaluation 10.4.2 Antifungal Evaluation 10.4.3 Antimycobacterial Evaluation 10.4.4 Anticancer Evaluation 10.4.5 Antibiofilm Evaluation 10.4.6 Antioxidant Evaluations, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antidiabetic Evaluations 10.4.7 Toxicological Evaluations 10.5 Development of Herbal Bioproducts 10.5.1 Antibacterial Herbal Bioproducts 10.5.2 Antifungal Bioproducts 10.6 Conclusion and Prospects Acknowledgements References Chapter 11 Sustainable Agricultural Practices of Industrially Utilized Tropical Medicinal Plants 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Industrially Important Tropical Medicinal Plants 11.2.1 Acorus calamus Linn (Sweet Flag) 11.2.1.1 Propagation 11.2.1.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.2 Adhatoda zeylanica Medic (Ardusi) 11.2.2.1 Propagation 11.2.2.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.3 Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. Ex. Nees (Kalmegh) 11.2.3.1 Propagation 11.2.3.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.4 Asparagus racemosus Willd (Shatavari) 11.2.4.1 Propagation 11.2.4.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.5 Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell. Arg. (Danti) 11.2.5.1 Propagation 11.2.5.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.6 Brahmi (Centella asiatica L. Urban & Bacopa monnieri [L.] Pennel) 11.2.6.1 Propagation 11.2.6.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.7 Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.) DC. (Sword Bean) 11.2.7.1 Propagation 11.2.7.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.8 Cassia angustifolia Vahl. (Senna) 11.2.8.1 Propagation 11.2.8.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.9 Coleus forskohlii Briq 11.2.9.1 Propagation 11.2.9.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.10 Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy (Shankhpushpi) 11.2.10.1 Propagation 11.2.10.2 Chemical constituents and Utilization 11.2.11 Costus speciosus (Koen ex. Retz.) Sm. (Insulin Plant) 11.2.11.1 Propagation 11.2.11.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.12 Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC (Shalparni) 11.2.12.1 Propagation 11.2.12.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.13 Dioscorea spp 11.2.13.1 Propagation 11.2.13.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.14 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk (Bhringraj) 11.2.14.1 Propagation 11.2.14.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.15 Glychrhizza glabra Linn (Jethimadh) 11.2.15.1 Propagation 11.2.15.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.16 Guggul 11.2.16.1 Propagation 11.2.16.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.17 Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. (Gudmar) 11.2.17.1 Propagation 11.2.17.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.18 Moringa oleifera Lam. (Drumstick Tree) 11.2.18.1 Propagation 11.2.18.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.19 Mucuna pruriens L. (DC). (Velvet beans) 11.2.19.1 Propagation 11.2.19.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.20 Musli—Safed Musli and Kali Musli 11.2.20.1 Propagation 11.2.20.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.21 Ocimum sanctum Linn. (Tulsi) 11.2.21.1 Propagation 11.2.21.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.22 Piper longum L. (Pippali) 11.2.22.1 Propagation 11.2.22.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.23 Plantago ovata Forsk—(Isabgul) 11.2.23.1 Propagation 11.2.23.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.24 Plumbago zeylanica Linn.—(Chitrak) 11.2.24.1 Propagation 11.2.24.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.25 Rauwolfia serpentina Benth. ex Kurz.—(Sarpagandha) 11.2.25.1 Propagation 11.2.25.2 Chemical Constituents and utilization 11.2.26 Rubia cordifolia L.—(Mangistha) 11.2.26.1 Propagation 11.2.26.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.27 Sida cordifolia L.—(Bala) 11.2.27.1 Propagation 11.2.27.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.28 Stevia rebaudiana Bert 11.2.28.1 Propagation 11.2.28.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.29 Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers—(Galo/Giloy) 11.2.29.1 Propagation 11.2.29.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.2.30 Withania sonmifera (L.) Dunal,—(Ashwagandha) 11.2.30.1 Propagation 11.2.30.2 Chemical Constituents and Utilization 11.3 Conclusion and Prospects Acknowledgements References Chapter 12 Prospects for Sustainable Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in India 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Demand and Supply of MAPs in India 12.2.1 Market Potential and Trade of MAPs: Indian Scenario 12.3 Need for Sustainable Cultivation of MAPs 12.4 Propagation and Supply of Quality Planting Material of MAPs 12.5 Cultivation of MAPs as Sole Crops 12.5.1 Cultivation of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) in Madhya Pradesh 12.5.2 Cultivation of Pippali/Hippali (Piper longum) in Andhra Pradesh 12.5.3 Cultivation of Mentha spp. in Hills of Uttar Pradesh 12.5.4 Cultivation of Rosemary in Karnataka 12.5.5 Cultivation of Senna and Isabgol in Gujarat and Rajasthan Area 12.5.6 Cultivation of Glory Lilly (Gloriosa superba) in Tamil Nadu 12.6 Integration of MAPs in Different Farming/Cropping System 12.6.1 Need for Cropping/Farming Systems in India 12.6.2 Intercropping 12.6.3 Cultivation of MAPs with Plantation Crops 12.6.3.1 Cultivation of MAPs with Coconut Crop 12.6.3.2 Medicinal Plants in Arecanut Plantation 12.6.3.3 Intercropping of Medicinal Plants in Oil Palm-Based Cropping System 12.6.3.4 Intercropping of Medicinal Plants in Black Pepper 12.6.4 Intercropping of Aromatic Plants 12.6.5 MAPs with Field Crops 12.6.6 Medicinal Plants in Multi-Story Cropping System 12.6.7 Crop Rotation 12.6.8 Sequential Cropping 12.6.9 Alley Cropping 12.6.10 MAPs and Agroforestry 12.6.11 Silvi-Medicinal System 12.7 MAPs for Dry Lands 12.8 MAPs for Wastelands 12.9 Organic Nutrient Management in Medicinal and Aromatic Crops 12.10 MAPs Cultivation in Problematic Soils 12.11 Soilless Culture/Terrace Cultivation of MAPs 12.12 Hydroponics/Aeroponics Production of MAPs 12.13 Conclusion and Prospects Acknowledgements References Chapter 13 The Role of Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Sustainable Utilisation and Conservation of Medicinal Plants 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Methods and Materials 13.3 Results and Discussion 13.3.1 Cosmological Beliefs in the Sustainable Utilisation of Medicinal Plants 13.3.2 Traditional Institutions/Indigenous Legislation 13.3.3 Spiritual Beliefs and Worldviews/Traditional Beliefs 13.3.4 Myths and Taboo of Medicinal Plants 13.4 Conservation of Medicinal Plants Using IKS 13.4.1 Harvesting Practices 13.4.1.1 Restrictions on the Cutting of Green Plants 13.4.1.2 Exclusive Harvesting of the Leaves of Certain Species 13.4.1.3 Collection of Lateral Roots from Medicinal Plant Species 13.4.1.4 Seed Propagation (Sustainability) 13.5 The Importance of Plant Conservation through IK Practices Helps Strengthen Cultural Integrity and Values 13.6 Conclusions and Prospects Acknowledgements References Chapter 14 Metabolomics Approach: A Tool for Understanding Alzheimer’s Disease 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Materials and Method 14.3 Metabolomics 14.3.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Versus Mass Spectrometry (MS): The Most Common Analytical Technique in Metabolomics 14.3.2 Sample Preparations for Metabolomics Studies 14.3.2.1 Sample Preparation from Biofluids 14.3.2.2 Sample Preparation from Plants 14.3.2.3 Sample Preparation from Animal Tissues 14.3.3 Data Acquisition and Processing in Metabolomics 14.3.3.1 Data Acquisition Tools 14.3.3.2 Data Processing 14.3.4 Metabolite Identification 14.3.4.1 NMR-Based Identification 14.3.4.2 MS-Based Identification 14.3.5 Application of Metabolomics Biomarkers in AD 14.3.6 Applications of Metabolomics in Investigating the Anti-Alzheimer Effect of Natural Products 14.4 Limitations 14.5 Conclusions and Prospects Acknowledgements References Chapter 15 Can Phylogenetics Clear Plant Taxonomic Confusion for Conservation and Sound Bioprospecting? 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Taxonomy and Phylogenetics 15.2.1 Adulteration and Misidentification 15.3 Taxonomic Under- and Over-Differentiation 15.4 Methods in Taxonomy 15.5 Phylogenetic Taxonomy 15.6 The Barcoding of Life 15.7 Integration of Phylogenetics and Ethnobotany 15.7.1 Phylogenetic Ethnobotany 15.7.2 Phylogenetic Analysis and Bioprospecting 15.7.3 Phylogenetic Rationale 15.8 Phylogenetic Techniques in Cryopreservation 15.9 Conclusion and Prospects Acknowledgements References Chapter 16 Spices as Potential Human Disease Panacea 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Cinnamon 16.2.1 Sources of Cinnamon 16.2.2 Chemical Constitutes of Cinnamon 16.2.3 Biological and Medicinal Significance of Cinnamon 16.2.3.1 Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Cinnamon 16.2.3.2 Anti-cancer Activity of Cinnamon 16.2.3.3 Antioxidant Activity of Cinnamon 16.2.3.4 Anti-diabetic Activity of Cinnamon 16.2.3.5 Neuroprotective Activity of Cinnamon 16.3 Onion 16.3.1 Sources of Onion 16.3.2 Chemical Constitutes of Onion 16.3.3 Biological and Medicinal Significance of Onion 16.3.3.1 Antioxidant Activity of Onion 16.3.3.2 Anti-carcinogenic and Anti-mutagenic Activities of Onion 16.4 Red Chili Pepper 16.4.1 Sources of Red Chili Pepper 16.4.2 Chemical Constitutes of Red Chili Pepper 16.4.3 Biological and Medicinal Significance of Red Chili Pepper 16.4.3.1 Immunomodulatory Properties of Red Chili Pepper 16.4.3.2 Effects of Red Chili Pepper on Cardiovascular Diseases 16.4.3.3 Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Red Chili Pepper 16.4.3.4 Anti-carcinogenic and Anti-mutagenic Properties of Red Chili Pepper 16.4.3.5 Other Health Benefits of Red Chili Pepper 16.5 Conclusion and Prospects References Chapter 17 Commercialization of Medicinal Plants: Opportunities for Trade and Concerns for Biodiversity Conservation 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Diversity of Medicinal Plants 17.2.1 Misidentification of Medicinal Plants 17.2.2 Overharvesting of Medicinal Plants and Threats to Plant Diversity 17.2.3 Opportunities for Local Trade and Foreign Direct Investment in Medicinal Plants 17.3 A Systematic Review of Research Trend on Traded Medicinal Plants 17.3.1 Material and Methods 17.3.1.1 Data Sourcing 17.3.2 Results and Discussion 17.3.2.1 Main Data Summary from Web of Science 17.3.2.2 The Annual Scientific Production 17.3.2.3 Twenty Most Productive Authors 17.3.2.4 Twenty Most Productive Countries 17.3.2.5 Twenty Topmost Affiliations 17.3.2.6 Journal Dynamics 17.4 Conclusion Acknowledgements References Chapter 18 Ethnomedicinal and Other Ecosystem Services Provided by Threatened Plants: A Case Study of Cycads 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Material and Methods 18.3 Results and Discussion 18.3.1 Provisioning Services 18.3.1.1 Ethnomedicinal Services of Cycad 18.3.1.2 Food Ecosystem Services 18.3.1.3 Ecosystem Services Provided by Cycads: Goods 18.3.2 Cultural Services 18.3.2.1 Aesthetic Services of Cycad 18.3.2.2 Ecosystem Services Provided by Cycads: Spiritual and Religious Uses 18.4 Conclusions and Prospects Funding Conflicts of Interest References Chapter 19 Discovery of Antibacterial Lead Compounds from Three South African Marine Algae 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Materials and Methods 19.2.1 General Experimental Procedures 19.2.2 Biological Material 19.2.3 Extraction and Isolation 19.2.3.1 Pachydictyol A 19.2.3.2 C-15 Acetogenin 19.2.3.3 Cartilagineol 19.2.4 Culturing of MRSA 33591 Test Strain 19.2.5 Thin-Layer Bioautography Assay 19.2.6 Microdilution Assay 19.3 Results and Discussion 19.3.1 Isolation of 1 19.3.2 Structure Elucidation of 1 19.3.3 Isolation of 2 19.3.4 Structure Elucidation of 2 19.3.5 Isolation of 3 19.3.6 Structure Elucidation of 3 19.3.7 Biological Activity Observed for Compounds 1–3 19.3.8 The Susceptibility Assessment of Extracts and Compounds 1–3 against MRSA by Broth Microdilution 19.4 Conclusion and Prospects Funding Acknowledgements References Chapter 20 An Endophytic Beauveria bassiana (Hypocreales) Strain Enhances the Flavonol Contents of Helichrysum petiolare 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Materials and Methods 20.2.1 Research Design 20.2.2 Plant Materials 20.2.3 Fungus Preparation 20.2.4 Greenhouse Experiment 20.2.5 Fungal Colonisation of Plant Tissue 20.2.6 Sample Preparation for Chemical Analyses and Antioxidant Activities 20.2.7 Analysis of Secondary Metabolites on Leaves of Inoculated Plants 20.2.7.1 Total Polyphenol 20.2.7.2 Total Flavonol 20.2.8 GC–MS Analysis 20.2.8.1 Sample Preparation 20.2.8.2 GC-MS Analysis (Headspace) 20.2.8.3 Chromatographic Separation 20.2.9 Antioxidants 20.2.9.1 Sample Materials 20.2.9.2 Sample Preparation 20.2.9.3 Ferric-Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) 20.2.9.4 Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC) 20.2.10 Statistical Analysis 20.3 Results 20.3.1 Total Flavonol (mg QE/L) 20.3.2 Total Polyphenol (mg GAE/L) 20.3.3 GC–MS 20.3.4 Antioxidants 20.3.4.1 FRAP (µmol AAE/L) 20.3.4.2 Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (µmol TE/L) 20.4 Discussion 20.5 Conclusion and Prospects Acknowledgements References Chapter 21 Ethnobotanical Study of Plants Used for the Management of Diabetes Mellitus in South Africa 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Methodology 21.3 Results and Discussion 21.4 Conclusion and Prospects Acknowledgements References Chapter 22 Traditional Healthcare Practices of Herbal Drugs in Uttarakhand Himalayas, India 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Study Area 22.3 Rituals for Collection of Medicinal Plants 22.4 Methods Used for the Formulation 22.5 Erosion of Traditional Knowledge Base 22.6 The Present State of Knowledge 22.7 Conclusion and Prospects 22.8 Competing Interests Acknowledgements References Chapter 23 Physicochemical Characterization, Antioxidant, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Turmeric-Black Cumin Homegrown COVID-19 Herbal Mixture 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Material and Methods 23.2.1 Herbal Raw Materials 23.2.2 Extraction 23.2.3 Physicochemical Analyses 23.2.4 2,2-Diphenyl-1-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) Spectrophotometric Assay 23.2.5 Nitric Oxide (NO) Inhibition Assay 23.2.6 Hydrogen Peroxide Inhibition Assay 23.2.7 Ferric-Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Assay 23.2.8 In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Test 23.2.9 Statistical Analysis and Workflow 23.3 Results 23.3.1 In Vitro Antioxidant Activity 23.3.2 In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Activity 23.4 Discussion 23.4.1 Chemical Composition 23.4.2 Biological Activities 23.5 Conclusion and Prospects Funding Acknowledgement Declaration of Competing Interest References Chapter 24 Effect of Climate Change on Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine-Based Health Security in Nasarawa State, Nigeria 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Current Herbal Medicine Development and Research 24.3 Methodology 24.3.1 Area of Study Nasarawa (North Central) 24.3.2 Materials and Methods 24.3.3 Sampling Technique 24.3.4 Analytical Tools/Techniques 24.5 Results 24.5.1 Analysis of the Data from Nasarawa State 24.5.2 Limitations of the Research Project 24.6 Conclusion and Prospects References Appendix 24.1 Index