Earth's Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth

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Title Copyright Dedication Brief Contents Contents Preface to the Second Edition: For the Instructor and Student The Student Experience Teaching Tools Acknowledgments About the Author Part I Earth Systems: Their Nature and Their Study Chapter 1 Introduction: Investigating Earth’s Systems 1.1 Why Study the History of Earth? 1.2 What Are the Major Earth Systems, and What Are Their Characteristics? 1.3 Geologic Time and Process 1.4 Directionality and the Evolution of Earth Systems 1.5 Geology as an Historical Science 1.6 Method and Study of Earth’s Evolving Systems Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Structure of Earth 2.3 Plate Tectonics: From Hypothesis to Theory 2.3.1 Early studies of mountain building 2.3.2 Hypothesis of continental drift 2.3.3 Hypothesis of seafloor spreading 2.3.4 Corroboration of seafloor spreading 2.4 Continental Margins and Plate Boundaries: Features and Behavior 2.4.1 Types of margins 2.4.2 Tectonic features of Earth’s surface 2.4.3 Types of plate boundaries 2.5 Orogenesis 2.5.1 Types of orogenesis 2.5.2 Rocks and sediments associated with orogenesis 2.6 Isostasy 2.7 Tectonic Cycle 2.8 Tectonic Cycle and Scientific Method Chapter 3 Earth Systems: Processes and Interactions 3.1 The Solid Earth System: Components and Processes 3.2 Rock Cycle 3.2.1 Igneous rocks 3.2.2 Sedimentary rocks 3.2.3 Metamorphic rocks 3.3 Atmosphere and Its Circulation 3.4 The Hydrosphere 3.4.1 Hydrologic cycle 3.4.2 Ocean circulation 3.5 The Biosphere 3.5.1 Biogeography: distribution of plants and animals over Earth’s surface 3.5.2 Energy relationships 3.5.3 Biogeochemical cycles 3.6 The Tectonic Cycle and Earth Systems Chapter 4 Sedimentary Rocks, Sedimentary Environments, and Fossils 4.1 Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks 4.2 Processes of Weathering 4.3 Terrigenous Sedimentary Rocks 4.3.1 Formation of terrigenous sediments 4.3.2 What do terrigenous sedimentary rocks tell us about how they formed? 4.4 Biogenic Sedimentary Rocks 4.5 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 4.6 Marine Environments 4.6.1 Marginal marine environments 4.6.2 Coral reefs 4.6.3 Continental shelves, continental slopes, and the abyss 4.7 Sedimentary Structures 4.8 Fossils 4.8.1 Early processes of fossilization 4.8.2 Modes of preservation Chapter 5 Evolution and Extinction 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Early Theories of Evolution 5.3 Charles Darwin and the Beginnings of the Modern Theory of Evolution 5.4 Basic Premises of Darwinian Evolution 5.5 Inheritance and Variation 5.6 Genetic Code and Mutation 5.7 Evidence for Natural Selection 5.8 Speciation 5.9 Evolution and the Fossil Record 5.9.1 Comparative anatomy 5.9.2 Cladistics 5.9.3 Microevolution 5.9.4 Macroevolution 5.10 Mass Extinction 5.11 Biodiversity Through the Phanerozoic Chapter 6 Geologic Time and Stratigraphy 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Relative Ages 6.3 Absolute Ages 6.4 Evolution of the Geologic Time Scale 6.5 Correlation 6.5.1 Lithocorrelation 6.5.2 Formations and facies 6.5.3 Biostratigraphy 6.5.4 Integrating different stratigraphic datums 6.6 How Complete Is the Geologic Record? 6.6.1 Unconformities and diastems 6.6.2 Sequence stratigraphy 6.7 Why Is Sea Level So Important? Part II The Precambrian: Origin and Early Evolution of Earth’s Systems Chapter 7 An Extraordinary Beginning: Hadean and Archean 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Origin of the Universe 7.2.1 Early observations and theories 7.2.2 The Big Bang: from hypothesis to theory 7.2.3 The inflationary universe 7.3 Origin of Matter and Forces of Nature 7.4 Formation of the Solar System 7.5 The Hadean: Origin of Earth and Moon 7.5.1 Earth’s earliest evolution 7.5.2 Origin of the Moon 7.6 The Archean: Beginnings of a Permanent Crust 7.6.1 Shields and cratons: cores of continents 7.6.2 Gneiss terranes 7.6.3 Greenstone belts 7.6.4 Microplate tectonics and differentiation of the early crust 7.7 Climatic Evolution of the Inner Planets 7.7.1 Habitable zone 7.7.2 Faint young sun 7.7.3 Weathering and tectonism on the inner planets Chapter 8 Origins of Life 8.1 Life as a Geologic Force 8.2 Early Theories of the Origin of Life: Spontaneous Generation and Panspermia 8.3 What Is Life? 8.3.1 Basic traits of life 8.3.2 Composition of life 8.4 Chemical Evolution 8.4.1 Early theories 8.4.2 Hydrothermal vents and the pyrite world 8.4.3 The RNA world 8.4.4 Autocatalysis 8.5 Origin of Eukaryotic Cells 8.6 Precambrian Fossil Record and Molecular Clocks 8.7 Is There Life on Other Planets? Chapter 9 The Proterozoic: Life Becomes a Geologic Force 9.1 Significance of the Proterozoic 9.2 Appearance of Modern Plate Tectonics 9.3 Sedimentary Rocks and Continental Shelves 9.4 Oxygenation of Earth’s Atmosphere 9.4.1 Appearance of oxygen 9.4.2 Stages in the oxygenation of Earth’s atmosphere 9.4.3 Rise of ozone 9.5 Snowball Earth: Earth Out of Balance? 9.5.1 Previous hypotheses for Snowball Earths 9.5.2 Snowball Earth reexamined 9.5.3 How could a Snowball Earth have occurred in the first place? 9.5.4 Why were there no Snowball Venuses? 9.5.5 Why didn’t Snowball Earths recur after the Precambrian? Chapter 10 Life’s “Big Bang”: The Origins and Early Diversification of Multicellular Animals 10.1 Enigma of Multicellular Organisms 10.2 Stages of Life’s Big Bang 10.2.1 Ediacara fauna 10.2.2 Trace fossils and early hard parts 10.2.3 Burgess Shale and the “Cambrian explosion” 10.3 What Do These Faunas Tell Us? 10.4 Why Did Metazoans Appear? 10.4.1 Snowball Earths 10.4.2 Oxygen 10.4.3 Predation 10.4.4 Food 10.4.5 Changes in biogeochemical cycles 10.4.6 Ecologic and genetic mechanisms 10.4.7 Extinction 10.5 Molecular Clocks and the Fossil Record of Early Metazoans Part III The Phanerozoic: Toward the Modern World Chapter 11 The Early-to-Middle Paleozoic World 11.1 Introduction: Beginnings of the Phanerozoic Eon 11.2 Tectonic Cycle: Impacts on the Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, and Rock Cycle 11.2.1 Sea level, CO2, and sedimentary facies 11.2.2 Ocean circulation and chemistry 11.3 Tectonic Cycle and Orogeny 11.3.1 Physiographic provinces of the Appalachian Mountains 11.3.2 Orogenic episodes 11.4 Impact of Orogeny on Earth Systems 11.5 Diversification of the Marine Biosphere 11.5.1 Plankton and microfossils 11.5.2 Benthic ecosystems 11.5.3 Reefs 11.6 Marine Realm Invades the Terrestrial Biosphere 11.6.1 Invertebrates 11.6.2 Fish 11.6.3 Amphibians and the invasion of land 11.6.4 Land plants and the “greening” of the continents 11.7 Extinction Chapter 12 The Late Paleozoic World 12.1 Introduction to the Late Paleozoic Era 12.2 Tectonic Cycle: Impacts on the Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, and Rock Cycle 12.2.1 Sea level, CO2, and sedimentary facies 12.2.2 Ocean circulation and chemistry 12.3 Tectonic Cycle and Orogeny 12.3.1 Alleghenian and related orogenies 12.3.2 Ancestral Rockies 12.3.3 Sonoma orogeny 12.4 Impact of Orogeny on Earth Systems 12.5 Diversification of the Marine Biosphere 12.5.1 Plankton and other microfossils 12.5.2 Benthic ecosystems 12.6 Diversification of the Terrestrial Biosphere 12.6.1 Terrestrial floras 12.6.2 Terrestrial floras and oxygen 12.6.3 Invertebrate life on land 12.6.4 Vertebrates 12.7 Multiple Causes of Extinction? Chapter 13 Mesozoic Era 13.1 Introduction to the Mesozoic Era 13.2 Tectonic Cycle: Impacts on the Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, and Rock Cycle 13.2.1 Rifting of Pangaea 13.2.2 Sea level, CO2, and sedimentary facies 13.2.3 Ocean circulation and chemistry 13.3 Tectonic Cycle and Orogeny 13.3.1 Eastern North America 13.3.2 Cordilleran Orogenic Belt 13.3.3 Orogenic episodes 13.4 Orogeny, Sea Level, and Sedimentation 13.5 Diversification of the Marine Biosphere 13.5.1 Plankton and microfossils 13.5.2 Benthic ecosystems 13.5.3 Marine vertebrates 13.6 Diversification of the Terrestrial Biosphere 13.6.1 Plants and insects 13.6.2 Vertebrates 13.6.3 Evolution of flight 13.6.4 Mammals 13.7 Extinction 13.7.1 Late Triassic extinctions 13.7.2 Late Cretaceous extinctions Chapter 14 The Cenozoic Era: The Paleogene Period 14.1 Introduction to the Cenozoic Era 14.2 Tectonic Cycle and Orogeny 14.2.1 Europe and Asia 14.2.2 The Pacific Rim 14.2.3 Gulf and Atlantic coastal plains 14.3 Tectonic Cycle: Impacts on Climate, Ocean Circulation, and Chemistry 14.3.1 Climate and ocean circulation 14.3.2 Ocean chemistry 14.4 Diversification of the Marine Biosphere 14.4.1 Microfossils and other invertebrates 14.4.2 Vertebrates 14.5 Diversification of the Terrestrial Biosphere 14.5.1 Plants 14.5.2 Early evolution and diversification of mammals 14.5.3 Archaic mammals 14.5.4 Climate change and mammals 14.5.5 Diversification of modern mammals 14.5.6 Birds 14.6 Extinction: Glaciers, Volcanoes, and Impacts Chapter 15 The Cenozoic Era: The Neogene Period 15.1 Introduction to the Neogene 15.2 Tectonics and Sedimentation 15.2.1 Europe, Asia, and Africa 15.2.2 Central and South America 15.2.3 Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of North America 15.2.4 Western North America 15.2.5 West Coast of North America 15.2.6 Evolution of the San Andreas Fault system 15.3 How Was the West Widened? Evolution of the Basin and Range 15.3.1 Background 15.3.2 Hypotheses for the formation of the Basin and Range 15.4 Climate, Ocean Circulation, and Chemistry 15.5 The “Ice Ages”: Evolution of a Theory 15.5.1 Background 15.5.2 The eccentricity of James Croll 15.5.3 Precession of the equinoxes 15.5.4 Milutin Milankovitch and obliquity 15.5.5 Planktonic foraminifera and the oxygen isotope curve 15.6 Neogene Life 15.6.1 Marine life 15.6.2 Land plants 15.6.3 Terrestrial vertebrates 15.6.4 Evolution of humans1 15.7 Extinction Part IV Humans and the Environment Chapter 16 Rapid Climate Change During the Holocene 16.1 Introduction to the Holocene 16.2 Beginning of the Holocene 16.2.1 Sea-level rise 16.2.2 Younger Dryas 16.3 Rapid Climate Change on Millennial Time Scales 16.3.1 Rapid climate change involving the oceans 16.3.2 Rapid climate change on land 16.4 Rapid Climate Change on Centennial Time Scales 16.5 Rapid Climate Change on Interdecadal to Multidecadal Time Scales 16.6 Climatic Modes and Climatic Irreversibility Chapter 17 The Anthropocene: Humans as an Environmental Force 17.1 Introduction: From Geohistory to Geopolitics 17.1.1 Climate, history, and the modern world 17.2 Examples of Human–Climate Interactions During the Last Millennium 17.3 Brief History of the Growing Dependence on Fossil Fuels 17.4 Alternative Energy Sources and Technologies 17.4.1 Wind, geothermal, and solar energy 17.4.2 Hydroelectric power 17.4.3 Nuclear energy 17.4.4 Methane gas hydrates 17.4.5 Biofuels 17.4.6 Automobiles 17.5 Consequences of Fossil Fuel Combustion 17.5.1 Carbon dioxide: Temperature rise and ocean acidification 17.5.2 Sea-level rise 17.5.3 Storms 17.5.4 Fisheries 17.5.5 Precipitation patterns 17.5.6 Disease 17.6 Biodiversity and Extinction 17.7 Closer to Home 17.8 Why Should We Care, and What Can We Do? Glossary Index