Neotropical Gradients and Their Analysis

Description

The importance of the Neotropics to the world's climate, biogeochemical cycling and biodiversity cannot be questioned.  This book suggests that gradients are key to understanding both these issues and Neotropical ecosystem structure, function and dynamics in general.  Those gradients are either spatial, temporal or spatio-temporal, where many temporal and spatio-temporal gradients are initiated by disturbances (e.g., tree-fall, landslide, cultivation).  And in particular for the Neotropics, three large spatial gradients - latitude, longitude, altitude (elevation) - are of critical importance.  The editor has over 30 years of experience investigating Neotropical gradients in Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, Peru and Ecuador, and has published 5 previous books on different aspects of the Neotropics.  Once again he has assembled top-shelf Neotropical scientists and researchers, here to focus on gradients: their nature, interactions and how they structure ecosystems. Contents Contributors Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 The Neotropics 1.2 Gradients 1.3 The Analysis of Gradients 1.4 Gradients and Ecosystems 1.5 Toward a Theory of Gradients 1.6 Case Study: Reserva Biologica San Francisco, Ecuador 1.6.1 Physical Gradient (Spatial: Elevation): Curve-Fitting Tree Species and Family Patterns Along that Gradient 1.6.2 Physical Gradient (Spatial: Elevation): Curve-Fitting Physical Structure Patterns Along that Gradient 1.7 Case Study: Maquipucuna Reserve, Ecuador 1.7.1 Biological Gradient (Temporal): 1 ha Primary Cloud Forest 1.7.2 Biological Gradient (Temporal): 1 ha Secondary Cloud Forest Recovering After Sugarcane Cultivation, After Banana Cultivation, and After Use as Pasture 1.7.3 Biological Gradient (Spatial): Recruitment Experiments in a 1 ha Secondary Cloud Forest Recovering After Sugarcane Cultivation, After Banana Cultivation, and After Use as Pasture 1.7.4 Biological Gradient (Spatial): Landslide 1.8 Case Study: Area de Conservacion Regional Comunal de Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo, Peru 1.8.1 Physical/Chemical Gradient (Spatial): Primary Igapó Forest Flooding × Tree-Fall Gap Plots: Soils, Floristics, and Physical Structure 1.8.2 Physical/Chemical Gradient (Spatial): Primary Igapó Forest Flooding × Tree-Fall Gap Plots: Seed Predation, Seed Pathogens, Germination 1.9 Case Study: The Luquillo Experimental Forest in Puerto Rico, USA, the Tropical Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) Site of the U. S. National Science Foundation 1.9.1 Physical Gradient (Spatial: Elevation): Forest Tree Ecotypes 1.9.2 Biological Gradient (Spatial Gradient/Temporal Gradient Interactions): Pastures and Coffee Plantation Plots After Abandonment 1.9.3 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Gradients (Spatial Gradient/Temporal Gradient Interactions): Landslide 1.10 Monteverde Cloud Forest, Costa Rica 1.10.1 Biological Gradient (Spatial): Landslide 1.11 Comparing Landslides at LEF and MCF (Large Spatial Gradients): Regeneration 1.12 About This Book References Untitled Chapter 2: Mountain Gradients in the Neotropics: A Bracken Fern Perspective 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Andean Barrier as an Atmospheric Water Trap and Impact on Vegetation 2.3 The Complex Andean Topography as a Gene Flow Barrier 2.4 The Question of Invasive Plant Species in the Andes 2.5 Bracken (Pteridium spp.), an Invasive Fern Taxa of Neotropical Mountains 2.6 Herbivory on Andean Brackens 2.6.1 Arthropod Herbivory on Andean Bracken 2.6.2 Bracken Arthropods and Altitude 2.6.3 The Case of Bracken Ants in the Northern Andes 2.6.4 The Impact of Temperature on Ants in the Northern Andes 2.7 Vertebrate Herbivory on Andean Bracken 2.8 Intraplant Competition in Neotropical Mountain Brackens 2.9 Differences Between P. caudatum (PC) and P. esculentum subsp. arachnoideum (PEA) 2.9.1 Macroscopical Differences 2.9.2 Microscopical Differences 2.10 Growth of PC Along a Systematic Elevational Gradient 2.10.1 Establishing an Observational Altitudinal Gradient. Site Description 2.10.2 Climate: Temperatures 2.10.3 Frond Growth: Parameters and Frond Stages 2.10.4 Variation of Dimensional Parameters of PC Fronds 2.10.4.1 Maximum Rachis Length of Mature Fronds: Lr(max) 2.10.4.2 Time-Dependent Elongation of Stipe and Rachis 2.10.4.3 Frond Biomass (BM) 2.10.5 Growth Rate 2.11 PEA Fronds in Mid- to High Elevations in the Northern Andes 2.11.1 General Frond Features and Selected Descriptive Parameters 2.11.2 Study Sites 2.11.3 Climate 2.11.3.1 Air Temperature Along the Altitudinal Gradient A-I to A-III 2.11.3.2 Solar Radiation 2.12 PEA Growth Response to Elevation 2.12.1 Maximum Rachis and Stipe Lengths of Mature Fronds: Lr(max), Ls(max) 2.12.2 Blade Crown Size 2.12.3 Additional Phenotypic Responses of PEA to High Elevation 2.13 Overall Impact of Altitude on PEA 2.14 Phytochemical Responses of Neotropical Brackens to Elevational Gradients 2.15 Prunasin 2.16 Ptaquiloside (PTQ) 2.17 Polyphenolics in Neotropical Brackens and Elevation 2.17.1 Altitudinal Stress Related to Increasing UV-B Solar Radiation Energy 2.17.2 Exploring the Intervening Factors of Phenolic Production in Neotropical Bracken 2.17.2.1 UV-B Absorbance of Leaflet Epidermis 2.17.2.2 Synthesis-Accrual of Phenolics in Bracken, Electronic Spectra, and Frond Stage 2.17.2.3 LMP and HMP and Sun Exposure 2.17.2.4 LMP and HMP and Elevation in PC and PEA 2.17.2.5 Influence of Elevation, Solar Radiation, and Water Stress Combined in PEA 2.18 Concluding Remarks References Untitled Chapter 3: Effects of Agricultural Expansion on Lotic Benthic Macroinvertebrate Communities: A Review and Case Study from Brazil 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Review: Agricultural Expansion and Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Neotropical Streams 3.3 Case Study: Bodoquena Plateau, Brazil References Chapter 4: Plant Competition Across Topographic Gradients in Neotropical Cerrado Savannas: An Isotopic Approach 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 The Cerrado, Its Abiotic Environment and Vegetation Gradients 4.2 The Isotopic Approach 4.3 Topographic Gradients and Plant Competition in Central Brazil 4.4 Final Remarks References Chapter 5: Diversity of Aquatic Macroinvertebrates Along Altitudinal Gradients in Colombia 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Altitudinal Changes in Diversity of Different Taxonomic Groups 5.3 Trophic Structure and the Gradient of Elevation 5.4 Anthropogenic Altitudinal Gradients 5.5 Other Drivers Underlying Altitudinal Gradients References Chapter 6: Intraspecific Trait Variability of Emblematic Grass and Tree Species from Venezuelan Savannas Across Extended Physical Gradients 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The Emblematic Study Species 6.3 Intrapopulation Variability and Responses to Physical Demands 6.3.1 Field Sampling, Trait Assessment, and Analysis 6.3.2 Species Traits 6.3.3 Species Response Across the Physical Gradients 6.4 Recapitulation 6.5 Conclusions References Chapter 7: Latitudinal Trends in Scorpion Assemblages of Brazilian Atlantic Forest: Do the Rapoport’s and Bergmann’s Rules Apply? 7.1 Effects of Latitudinal Gradients in Biodiversity 7.2 Rapoport and Bergmann Rules 7.3 Scorpions as Organism Model in Ecological Studies 7.4 The Brazilian Atlantic Forest 7.5 Case Study: Scorpion Assemblage Along Latitudinal Gradient in Brazilian Atlantic Forest Appendix 7.1 References Untitled Chapter 8: Species Diversity of Three Faunal Communities Along a Successional Cloud Forest Gradient 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Materials and Methods 8.2.1 Study Area 8.2.2 Forest Successional Gradient 8.2.3 Faunal Sampling 8.2.4 Data Analysis 8.3 Results 8.3.1 Species Richness 8.3.2 Abundance or Occurrence Frequency 8.3.3 Species Composition 8.3.4 Community Structure 8.4 Discussion 8.4.1 Species Richness and Abundance in Forest Specialists Across Forest Chronosequences 8.4.1.1 Amphibians 8.4.1.2 Ants 8.4.1.3 Dung Beetles 8.4.2 Composition Similarity and Community Structure Along the Successional Forest Gradient 8.5 Perspectives References Chapter 9: Ecohydrological Gradient in Neotropical Montane Ecosystems: From Tropical Montane Forests to Glacier 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Methodology 9.2.1 Study Sites 9.2.2 Collected Data 9.2.3 Data Analysis 9.3 Results 9.3.1 Temperature 9.3.2 Relative Air Humidity 9.3.3 Evaporation and Evapotranspiration 9.3.4 Streamflow 9.4 Discussion 9.5 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Communities of Small Terrestrial Arthropods Change Rapidly Along a Costa Rican Elevation Gradient 10.1 Elevational Gradients 10.2 Expectations in the Study of High Elevation Tropical Forest Communities: Past and the Future 10.3 Case Study: Elevation Gradients on the Volcanoes of the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (Costa Rica) 10.3.1 Sampling Leaf Litter Arthropods and Temperature Along Elevation Gradients on the Volcanoes of the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (Costa Rica) 10.3.2 Formicidae 10.3.3 Staphylinidae 10.3.4 Araneae 10.3.5 Collembola 10.3.6 Isopoda 10.3.7 Microgastrinae Parasitoid Wasps 10.4 Conclusions and Next Steps 10.4.1 Insect Decline 10.4.2 Thermal Tolerance 10.4.3 Upslope Migration 10.4.4 Idiosyncratic Changes in Alpha Diversity – Consistent Changes in Betadiversity 10.4.5 Beyond Abiotic Factors 10.4.6 Going Forward References Chapter 11: Neotropical Gradients of Insect Groups in Brazilian Mountains 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Mountainous Environments as Natural Laboratories for Insect Studies 11.1.2 Neotropical Mountain Insects 11.1.3 Brazilian Mountains 11.1.4 The Espinhaço Range and Campo Rupestre 11.2 Quantifying Insect Diversity 11.2.1 Sampling Methods 11.2.1.1 Entomological Nets 11.2.1.2 Pan Traps 11.2.1.3 Malaise Traps 11.2.1.4 Pitfall Traps 11.2.1.5 Van Someren-Rydon 11.2.1.6 Trap Nests 11.2.1.7 Other Methods 11.3 Explanatory Variables and Analysis 11.3.1 Measures of Diversity 11.3.2 Climatic Variables 11.3.3 Habitat Structural Measurements 11.4 Elevational Gradient of Campo Rupestre (CR) Insects 11.4.1 Hymenoptera 11.4.2 Scarabeinae (Dung Beetles) 11.4.3 Lepidoptera (Butterflies) 11.4.4 Blattodea (Termites) 11.4.5 Insect Galls 11.4.6 Free-Feeding Herbivorous Insects 11.4.7 Aquatic Insects 11.5 Other Gradients in Campos Rupestres 11.5.1 Latitudinal Gradients 11.5.2 Longitudinal Gradients 11.5.3 Xeric-to-Mesic Gradients 11.5.4 Seasonal and Temporal Variation 11.6 Problems and Solutions for Campos Rupestres Insect Communities References Chapter 12: Altitudinal Pattern of Soil Organic Carbon and Nutrients in a Tropical Forest in Puerto Rico 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Methods and Materials 12.2.1 Field Sites 12.2.2 Soil Sampling and Lab Analysis 12.2.2.1 Soil Sampling 12.2.2.2 Soil Bulk Density (Db) and Soil Water Content (WC) 12.2.2.3 Soil pH and Particle Size 12.2.2.4 SOM and Soil Extractable Nutrients 12.2.3 Statistical Analyses 12.3 Results 12.3.1 Soil Physical Properties 12.3.2 Soil Carbon and Macronutrients 12.3.3 Soil Micronutrients 12.4 Discussion References Chapter 13: Elevational and Latitudinal Species Richness Patterns of Dung Beetles in North and South America and the Role Played by Historical Factors 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Methods 13.2.1 Data Origin 13.2.2 Data Treatment 13.3 Results 13.4 Discussion Appendix 13.1 – List of Included Publications References Untitled Chapter 14: Diversity Patterns of Vascular Plant Groups Along Gradients of Elevation and Disturbance in Mexico 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Methodology 14.2.1 Study Area 14.2.2 Vegetation Sampling 14.2.3 Data Analysis 14.3 Results 14.4 Discussion 14.4.1 Effects of the Elevational Gradient 14.4.2 Effect of the FUI Gradient 14.4.3 Effect of Climatic Variables 14.5 Conclusions References Chapter 15: Gradients and the Structure of Neotropical Metacommunities: Effects of Disturbance, Elevation, Landscape Structure, and Biogeography 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Metacommunity Ecology 15.3 Elements of Metacommunity Structure 15.4 Useful Methods for Understanding Metacommunity Structure and Structuring Mechanisms 15.4.1 Canonical Correspondence Analysis 15.4.2 Hierarchical Partitioning of Biodiversity 15.4.3 Variation Partitioning 15.5 Empirical Gradients 15.5.1 Elevation 15.5.2 Landscape Structure 15.5.3 Biogeographical Variation 15.5.4 Other Environmental Gradients 15.5.5 Empirical Neotropical Metacommunities: Summary 15.6 Future Directions for Metacommunity Research in the Neotropics References Chapter 16: Socioecological Gradients: Contesting Traditional Ecoclines to Explain the High Biocultural Diversity of the Andean Verdant 16.1 Introduction 16.1.1 Geographic Inquiry 16.1.2 Task at Hand 16.2 Methodologies 16.3 Results 16.3.1 Cultural Bulge in Andean Flanks 16.4 Conclusions and Discussion References Chapter 17: Conclusions, Synthesis, and Future Directions 17.1 Conclusions 17.2 Synthesis 17.3 Future Directions References